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Human Development at Various Stages

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 Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Prenatal Development
  3. Infancy
  4. Babyhood
  5. Early Childhood
  6. Late Childhood
  7. Adolescence
  8. Adulthood
  9. Middle Age
  10. Old Age
  11. Summary
  12. References

Introduction

Different stages of human growth are typical. These phases are connected in a logical and sequential way to the ones before and after them. Features that are specific to each stage shift from one to the next. They also differ from person to person, making each of us distinct in our own way. These elements may progress easily for some of us, while others may have ups and downs. These factors, as well as the manner in which they are developed in each individual, form the foundation of human personality. Let's get acquainted with some key principles that can be applied to the study of life's journey.
  1. Growth: It is a quantitative improvement that relates to a rise in cell size and quantity. It is based solely on maturation, not on what a person or creature learns.
  2. Maturation: It refers to those changes which primarily reveal on unfolding of genetically endowed physical capacities of the organism. Like a bud opens and blossoms into a flower, maturation brings out the full potential. It is not dependent on any special training or environment.
  3. Development: It can be defined as a series of gradual, well-coordinated changes that lead to the attainment of maturity (Hurlock, 1964). It refers to qualitative changes that are aimed at maturation. Maturation and learning are seen to be a function of or a product of development. Development follows a predictable and observable trend. Two development concepts have been found by researchers. They are as follows:

Cephalo-caudal principle:

This means that growth occurs all across the body, from head to toe. The head, then the trunk, and finally the legs, show changes in form and function.

 Proximodistal principle:

This principle states that development moves from near to distant, from the body's midpoint to the extremities.

Stages of development

Very broadly the stages of development may be categorized in two main types: 
A) Prenatal development 
B) Postnatal development.

All of the changes that occur in the mother's womb are referred to as prenatal development. As a result, it's also known as "intra-uterine development," because the uterus serves as the environment. Postnatal development, on the other hand, encompasses all stages that occur after delivery and continue until death.

Prenatal Development

A person's development begins long before birth, and the stage of development that occurs before birth is known as prenatal development. The father's sperm, or spermatozoan, combines with a cell in the mother's egg, or ovum. The sperm penetrates the layers of walls that surround the egg and joins it. Fertilization, or conception, is the name given to this process. As a result, a single cell known as a zygote is generated, and this is how life begins - as a single cell that can't even be seen with the naked eye embarks on a path of development to eventually become a complete person! Don't you think it's a marvellously complicated and gorgeous work of art?

Prenatal development covers the period from fertilization to birth. It comprises three stages:
  1.  The period of the zygote: from fertilization to end of two weeks.
  2. Period of the embryo: 2 weeks to 2 lunar months. 
  3. Period of the fetus: end of 2 months till birth.
  • The period of zygote: The ovarian tube, also known as the oviduct, continues to migrate down to the uterus. It floats freely in the uterine cavity for 4 to 5 days. The zygote penetrates into the uterine wall and attaches itself securely around the 10th day following fertilisation, a process known as implantation. It is encased by the uterus's wall. Rapid mitotic cell division occurs, and the single cell zygote resembles a ball with two layers of cells after repeated divisions.
  • The period of the embryo:  It might last anywhere from two weeks to two months. The embryo is like a little human being during this phase. Cell differentiation occurs when one cell divides into different types of cells. Internal organs including as the heart, lungs, and brain are produced, as well as external features such as the head, face, hands, fingers, and legs. The heartbeat of the embryo can be heard as it rotates within the uterus. The first twelve weeks are critical since this is when the body's major organs are created.
  • The third stage is the period of the fetus: It lasts from the third month forward till the baby is born. As you mature, your body proportions will change. The foetus' activity can be sensed. All of the internal organs are created, and by the fifth month, they have reached their final sizes. The nervous system develops between the second and fourth month. The foetus is ready to be born after 9 months, or 270 days. 

Influences during Prenatal stage

There are several factors which affect the development during the prenatal stage. These factors are collectively called as teratogens.
  1. Maternal Nutrition: The foetus requires nutrients to grow, which are provided by the mother. The food of the mother must be well-balanced. Vitamins and minerals (such as calcium, phosphate, and iron), water, proteins, lipids, and not just carbohydrates must all be included. In addition to milk, eggs, and meat or fish, vegetables, green leaves, seasonal fruits, legumes, and grains provide a balanced diet for both the infant and the mother.
  2. Maternal age: The best age for a mother to bear children is between the ages of 21 and 29. Below this threshold, the mother is physically and psychologically immature, posing a high risk of newborn death. After the age of 30, the likelihood of mental retardation and other genetic disorders increases dramatically.
  3. Rest and exercise of the mother: These are particularly important during pregnancy. When a mother is fatigued and overworked, foetal activity rises to dangerous levels, which can result in a stillbirth or irritation in the child. At the same time, mother needs to get enough exercise.
  4. Rh blood group: The majority of us have the Rh+ blood group, whereas others have the Rh- blood group. It is an incompatible situation if the mother is Rhand and the foetus is Rh+. The mother must be aware of it, and if proper precautions are not taken before delivery, complications such as jaundice can ensue, leading to child death.
  5. Addictions: The waste material from the mother's addiction to alcohol, cigarettes, or narcotics is passed on to the foetus. The chances of irritability, low birth weight or preterm, stillbirth, or a kid born addicted are all very high.
  6. Maternal diseases: The foetus can be adversely affected by the mother's illnesses. Particularly during the first few weeks of pregnancy. Rubella or German measles can cause deafness, mental disability, and even heart problems. Miscarriage can be caused by AIDS, Syphilis, or other sexually transmitted infections.
  7. Maternal stress: Blood supply to the fetus is not adequate when the mother has emotional problems, pressures, and fears, and it is redirected. As a result, growth is stifled. This can also lead to preterm, stillbirth, or irritability in the child.
With the start of the delivery process, prenatal development comes to an end. Birth can be natural and unassisted, or it can be induced. The foetus may face challenges and complications, particularly anoxia or a lack of oxygen. In the event of a difficulty, assistance is required, such as with an aided birth or a caesarian section. The health of the new born must be ensured in such aided births.

Infancy

At the time of birth, the steady prenatal development comes to an end, as well as a shock. The fetus is now in a completely altered environment, and his or her ability to adjust will determine how well he or she develops. A normal infant gives out a lusty cry, indicating that it is now breathing independently. The newborn cries when the lungs that have been dormant fill with air. However, if the baby's birth cry is delayed, it signifies he or she is not breathing. The oxygen supply to the brain may be harmed as a result of the delay, and if it is not restored, the kid may become retarded or possibly die. It's important to keep track of the new baby's weight. Low birth weight is defined as a birth weight of less than 2.5 kilogrammes. As a result, the newborn must fight more harder to regain normalcy and face life.

The neonate's main purpose or emphasis at this stage is to adjust to his or her new non-uterine surroundings. The new born must acquire a variety of skills, including adjusting to room temperature, breathing independently, sucking and digesting milk, and eliminating waste. A wake-sleep cycle occurs in the infant. It comprises of 50 to 60 minutes of awake and activity followed by three to four hours of sleep.

Characteristics of Infancy

The shortest of all developmental phases is infancy. Because the changes in the environment are so severe, the infant must make drastic adjustments. During infancy, there is a modest weight decrease, which is also referred to as a developmental plateau or stagnation. The adjustment of infants is also a sign or foreshadowing of future development. The infant is exposed to a variety of hazards and dangers. These dangers are both physical and psychological. The infant's ability to adjust to changing environmental conditions, such as respiratory, digestive, and circulatory functions, becomes a hazard.

Babyhood

Babyhood is the stage that follows infancy and extends between two weeks to two years. The characteristics of babyhood are as follows.
  1. The foundation for development throughout a person's life is laid throughout childhood. 
  2. Rapid physical and mental development occurs during childhood, as shown by increases in height, weight, and body proportions. 
  3. As a baby grows older, he or she gains more independence and personality.
  4. Socialisation begins in infancy, when the newborn expresses an increasing desire to join the family's social group and extend the basic contact with the mother or mother replacement to others. 
  5. Sex-role classification begins in infancy. Boys and girls are dressed and treated differently depending on their gender. Clothing, games, behaviour, and even encounters that are culturally appropriate are gradually introduced.
  6. A infant is exposed to dangers that are both physical and psychological. Physical threats, such as illness and accidents, as well as psychological hazards, might obstruct the baby's growth.
By two years of age, the baby should be able to walk, eat solid meals, have partial control over elimination, understand the foundations of receptive and expressive communication, and emotionally bond to his or her parents and others.

Physical Development:

Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height and weight increase. The birth weight is doubled by four months and tripled by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four months is 23 to 24 inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches. Social smile which is a response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone which happens around 2 months. Also, the baby can roll over from side to back at 2 months and from back to side at 4 months. At 6 months, it can roll over completely. The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting positions and sits up without support around 8 months. Hands and palm scoop up an object which is called palmers scoop, around 5 months. Around 9 months it can use the fingers in a pincergrip to pick up even fine objects.

Around six months, the infant hitsches or moves into a sitting position, and around eight months, the baby crawls and creeps. By the age of ten months, he can walk on all fours, pull himself up, and stand. He learns to stand with support by 11 months and without support for a year. He/she also learns to walk with assistance at first, then without assistance at 14 months. Motor development refers to certain developmental milestones that imply movement. The motor skills of babyhood are not integrated at first, but when they are, they are critical to the baby's development and personality.

Speech Development:

As the baby develops, the important bridge into the world of other is also developed in the form of speech which aids communication. It has two aspects : receptive speech to understand what others are communicating and expressive speech to make oneself understood. The baby begins to babble or produces several sounds. Then she moves on to the stage of monosyllables (eg: Ma,Ma,Da,Da.Na,Na etc.) which gives way to twosyllables stage. Before two years, the baby speaks with words made of two syllables formed in a sentence which typically has no grammar.

Emotional and Social Development:

Joy, tenderness, curiosity, fear, and wrath are common babyhood emotions that are often exhibited explosively and out of proportion to the stimuli. They're also only around for a brief time. Later in life, these feelings become much more conditioned or entrenched. Beginning with a sociable smile, toddlers learn to respond to their surroundings and lay the groundwork for later social skills that are highly valued.

Play Development:

The content of play, or what the kid performs, can be used to classify play activities. In terms of substance, sense pleasure play, skill play, theatrical play, ritual, and competitive games are all possibilities. The social aspect of play, or who the child is playing with and the nature of their interaction, is the second classification of play. Solitary play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play are the different styles of adult play.

Personality Development:

The personality of the individual already begins to take shape. The core of the personality, namely the self concept is formed. Other personality traits are strengthened or weakened depending on interaction with environment which are called as quantitative changes. The roots of these can be observed during babyhood.

Hazards in Babyhood:

There are various dangers that the newborn must avoid. Physical risks include death in the cot or crib, as well as infections, accidents, and starvation.

Delays in motor or speech development, as well as the consequences, are examples of psychological risks. Delays in growth obstruct social relationships, which in turn endangers emotional development.

Lack of opportunity and experiences to learn how to be social are social dangers. Because self-concept is essentially a mirror picture of what babies feel major people in their lives think of them, there are risks in personality development. As a result, negative attitudes from parents and others, such as resentment, negativism, or withdrawal behaviour, might harm the growing personality.

Early Childhood

Childhood lasts from 2 to 12 years and is separated into two categories: early childhood and late childhood. Early childhood is defined as the period between the age of two and six years. The child's skills, speech and play development, and personality development are all discussed in this section. The dangers of several developmental areas during early life are also mentioned. Parental approval is a source of childhood happiness, and methods for extending parental acceptance are discussed.

Preschool is another term for early childhood. The young child is motivated to take control over environmental knowledge. He or she seeks to learn more about the environment, which is why this stage is known as the exploring stage. Every thing or circumstance is so fascinating to a young child that he or she is always asking questions about what, why, and how, giving rise to the term "questioning age." They have a tendency to copy others, mainly the adults in their environment. As a result, this period is known as the "imitative age." Because their play involves a great lot of creativity and imagination, this stage is often known as the 'creative age.'

 Physical Development

There is a slowdown in comparison to the rapid physical development of childhood. The body proportions have been evened out, and the head-heavy appearance has been eliminated. On average, people grow roughly 2 kilogrammes of weight and 3 inches in height per year. Milk teeth fall out, and the chubbiness of childhood gives way to a gaunt appearance. Because of all of these changes, the youngster appears to be pretty unattractive.

 Skills of Early Childhood

Young children learn and master a variety of skills because their insatiable curiosity motivates them to manipulate and learn; they lack the inhibition or fear of ridicule that older children do; and, finally, their bodies and fingers are pliable and dexterous, making them 'teachable'– an essential quality for learning skills. Children learn a range of talents depending on their environment and their family background.

The hand skills of self feeding and dressing become perfect during childhood. Bathing, dressing, combing hair or even finer motor skills required for tying shoe laces are all learnt. Catching and throwing a ball, use of scissors, painting, colouring, use of crayons, drawing all become a part of early childhood years

Young children progress to other talents once they have mastered the core skill of walking. The child's progress is demonstrated by hopping, skipping, jumping, running, and climbing up and down the stairs. Cycling, swimming, skating, and wall walking are all activities that youngsters love at this age. By the end of early childhood, the child's handedness has been established, and he or she has a clear left or right hand preference.

Speech Development

As babyhood babbling and wailing are reduced, both receptive and expressive communication improves. Normal speech development progresses significantly, with students learning accurate pronunciation, constructing sentences (even if with bad grammar), and expanding their vocabulary. The content of speech also changes. Around the age of six, the child progresses from talking about himself, his interests, and needs to socialised speech, in which he or she discusses others and their concerns.

Emotional Development

Emotions during early childhood are intense with frequent emotional outbursts. These are associated with temper tantrums, intense fears or jealousies and can be traced to the cause of long and tiring play and too little food intake.

Play

Children play with toys a lot in early childhood, but as they become older, they stop. The number of toys or play equipment available, the opportunity for manipulation, well-developed motor skills, creativity, and a higher IQ all influence the pattern of play. Imitation and dramatisation are both common in play. Young children, for example, imitate the actions of mothers, teachers, and other adults. Young children love imaginative play, which frequently blends reality and fiction.

Relationship with Significant Others

  • Parental relationship: It is something that children go through with their father and mother or a parent-substitute. Because young children rely heavily on their parents, poor interactions can have disastrous consequences. Aside from that, the child's safety is based on the parents. As a result, a young child's poor relationship with his or her parents, as well as their absence or death, can significantly traumatise him or her and have an impact on his or her developing personality.
  • Sibling relationship: The child gradually gains independence and is no longer referred to as a "baby." Sibling rivalry is common when a young child demands his or her way. This is referred to as sibling rivalry. Siblings, on the other hand, may have a positive relationship. Especially when older children act as role models for younger children, who might learn socially acceptable and sex appropriate behaviour by imitating them.

Personality Development

Within the family, the self concept, which is the core of personality, is shaped. Because the child's social world consists of his or her parents, siblings, and relatives who remain with the child and reflect their feelings about the child, the youngster takes this as the self. Peer members have an impact on a child's self-concept as a result of their attitude toward the child, which can either reinforce and establish or contradict and harm the family's influence on the child.

Hazards of Early Childhood

Bodily dangers, such as illness, accidents, or awkwardness, entail both physical and psychological consequences, unlike in previous phases. When compared to earlier phases, the mortality rate drops dramatically. Children under the age of five are particularly vulnerable to infections and diseases. Generally, ailments are treated with enhanced health-care facilities. Cuts, bruises, falls, and burns are commonplace, and boys are more likely than girls to sustain them. Serious or persistent illness limits and deprives the child of opportunities, impacting his or her psychological well-being via influencing the youngster's adaptations.

A child who frequently encounters negative or unpleasant emotions such as anger and few positive emotions is at risk of developing a bad attitude. Early in life, children must learn to form an emotional bond with significant persons in their surroundings, which is known as the 'empathic complex.' Another emotional hazard is the failure to form an empathic complex. Children must form a loving and secure bond with their mothers, which will eventually be extended to other relationships.

There are also a number of scenarios that put the child's level of social adjustment at jeopardy. Such circumstances develop as a result of:
  • Speech or behaviour of the child, if unpopular, then he/she is isolated and lacks the opportunity to learn in the peer group situation. 
  • Children placed under strong pressure to play in a sex appropriate way may over do and become rejected. 
  • Young children, who face unpleasant social situations because of their age, sex or race, shun all social relations in order to protect themselves. 
  • Those children who play extensively with imaginary playmates or pets, tend to be dominating. This may result in social maladjustment. 
  • Children who have too many playmates all the time, do not learn how to handle the situation when they are alone and hence become lonely.

Moral Development

Early on in life, children learn what is acceptable and what is not acceptable behaviour. They must be properly trained in order to help moral development. It is based on the following:
  1. Parents who teach children right from wrong must be consistent, otherwise the child gets confused. 
  2. A mistake must not be appreciated, approved or smiled upon – it reinforces learning of wrong behaviour. 
  3. Too much punishment wrecks havoc with the child. Praise, awards and rewards for good behaviour and rare and consistent punishment develop moral fiber.
  4. The system must not be authoritarian but based on love and acceptance of the child
Parents who educate their children the difference between right and wrong must be consistent. When people teach children that what was bad yesterday is considered okay today and so overlooked, children become perplexed. Children are often confused by inconsistency between two adults. If a child's mistake is punished by parents but accepted and praised by others, particularly classmates, the child develops a positive attitude toward wrongdoing. Such behaviour frequently leads to delinquency. As a result, not only the error, but also the attitude toward it, must be examined.

Happiness

A happy youngster grows up to be a well-adjusted adult. Acceptance of the child, which is a significant determinant in happiness, is mostly the duty of parents. They must guarantee that the child perceives acceptance. It is accomplished in the following ways:
  1. Parents must accept their child regardless of his or her appearance, birth date, sex, or talents and flaws. They must greet the youngster with open arms and make him or her feel wanted. 
  2. Parents must meet their children's basic requirements. The right kind of food and nourishment can make a child feel welcomed and wanted. In the mind of a young child, keeping him/her clean and away from risks such as electric shock, fire, and accidents by providing a safe environment translates to acceptance. 
  3. Parents must spend time with their children. Participating in the child's activities and expanding the possibilities for the youngster to grow and develop are vital methods to show acceptance.
  4. Parents must make eye contact with their children when speaking to them. When a youngster is spoken to, he or she not only learns the language but also feels safe and accepted psychologically. 
  5. Encouragement makes a youngster feel joyful and welcomed, especially when the child is rapidly learning motor and speaking abilities. 
  6. Share age-appropriate and interest-based responsibilities with the youngster. When a youngster assists in watering a plant or cleaning the house, the child obtains acceptance and feels a part of the family's social group.
  7. In addition to feeling welcomed, showing compassion by hugging, kissing, or lifting up the child helps the child feel connected. 8) Parents must devote time to teaching their children the difference between good and wrong, acceptable and undesirable behaviour. Disciplining the child refers to the complete process. 
  8. Parents must explain and model appropriate behaviour in order to punish their children. They must also be consistent — both within themselves and over time. The effect of frequent punishment would wear off and the youngster would become desensitised. Only use this option as a last resort.
Punishment must always be appropriate to the wrongdoing and be fair. The youngster has to understand why he or she is being disciplined.

Late Childhood

Late childhood is defined as the time between the age of six and the age of sexual maturation, which is approximately the age of twelve to thirteen years. During this stage, youngsters exhibit a high level of negativity and, due to their drive for independence, rarely heed their parents. The youngster begins school and learns the fundamentals of information required for adult success. The peer group becomes extremely important, and youngsters of this age 'crowd together' or 'gang up,' gaining the term 'gang age.'

Developmental Tasks

Acceptance of the older child by peers is a crucial factor. Within the peer connection, the older child learns a variety of social skills that, like developmental tasks, bring delight when accomplished and frustration when not.
The older child’s accomplishments during this stage include the followings. 
  • He learns to get along with his peers his own age. 
  • Develops basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills.
  • Develops principles that are useful in everyday life. 
  • Develops a sense of morality and values, as well as a conscience. 
  • Assists in the development of attitudes toward social groupings and institutions. 
  • Learns the physical skills required for everyday games. 
  • Develops suitable male and feminine social roles.

Physical Development

Physical development is reasonably homogeneous but gradual. The child's weight gain is nearly constant until late childhood, and he or she grows 2-3 inches every year. The proportions of the body are elongated, with lengthy arms and legs, giving the impression of being awkward. With the reduction of fat, the face also becomes angular. Except for the wisdom teeth, all teeth that begin to fall out during the sixth year are replaced with permanent teeth.

Skills of Late Childhood

Children develop a numbers of skills during this stage. These skills also differ from boys to girls.
  • Self help skills of eating, dressing, bathing grooming become almost as adept as that of an adult, with very little concentration required.
  •  Social skills include helping others. Cleaning and helping in daily activities at home and helping teacher at school, sharing responsibilities with age mates at play are important achievements of the child. 
  •  School skills of writing, reading, drawing, painting, clay modeling, crayoning become more proficient. 
  • Play skills such as throwing and catching the ball, bicycling, skating and swimming are developed. Fine motor skills of painting and needlework are well developed among girls while boys achieve gross motor skills of throwing a ball, kicking football or jumping.

Speech Improvement

Older youngsters are becoming more aware of speech as a means of gaining acceptance from their peers. As a result, speech is actively improved by avoiding immature, undesirable modes of communication such as sobbing and waving. Pronunciation and grammatical rules are taught. Children enjoy telling jokes, describing events, and solving riddles. Parents and instructors can help their children improve their speech by encouraging them. Speech is modelled after radio and television. As names of colours, numbers, money concepts, and time concepts are introduced, vocabulary improves significantly. The gang's secret codes frequently become part of an older child's communication pattern. 

Emotions During Late Childhood

Older children learn to control emotional outbursts since they are viewed as immature and improper by their peers. On the other hand, happy and joyful expressions, such as smiling, giggling, or bouncing, are freely expressed. While the youngster is less likely to express unpleasant emotions, he or she may become moody or sulky. Sex appropriateness can be observed in the expression of emotions. Boys are more likely to display anger or curiosity, whereas girls are more likely to exhibit anxieties, worries, and feelings of affection.

Social Development

The older child expresses a great desire to be accepted by his peers. They despise being at home or playing with their siblings. The gangs are not criminal gangs, but rather play groups. They spend much of their time playing games, sports, or simply chatting. Gangs are also rigorously divided, with members of the same sex generally belonging to the same group. Those who are accepted by the gang members gain social standing and self-confidence, whilst those who are rejected lose both.

Play activities

For the older child, play is more than just a form of entertainment; it is the primary means of socialisation and the development of social skills. Various games, sports, and pastimes are loved, such as collecting artefacts (shells, stamps, and photographs). While these activities can be used, the social aims of play are approval and popularity.

Improvement of understanding

The older child has progressed to the point where notions are becoming more definite and concrete. They represent the 'concrete operations' stage of cognitive development. The school is critical in developing, enhancing, and clarifying concepts. The infant begins to comprehend social elements in concepts, such as sorts of groupings, distinctions, and similarities.

Moral Behaviour

The code of conduct and morality learnt at home is now extended to the social group. The child makes a conscious choice to be part of the peer group. Moral code is developed on the basis of general rather than specific situations. Discipline also helps in this process. Use of rewards, punishment and consistent application of rules enable the child to develop moral behaviour.

Personality Development

When the elder child starts school, his or her social circle expands beyond family members. The child now sees himself or herself not only through the eyes of his or her parents, but also through the eyes of teachers, classmates, and peers. As a result, the child's self-concept, as mirrored by those around him or her, is changed, and the child's personality features change as well.

Hazards in Late Childhood

The youngster is vulnerable to a variety of physical and psychological risks. They include illnesses and accidents, which are physical dangers that older children face. Although improved healthcare covers a variety of conditions, accidents are still a leading cause of death among older children. Children who are not accepted by their peers are dissatisfied, which can lead to personality problems later in life.

Happiness in Late Childhood

Happiness comes from a variety of places for the older child. Playtime is awaited with bated breath. However, if the home environment is comfortable, the child will love and be satisfied by his or her family, providing an additional source of happiness. In late childhood, social acceptance becomes a crucial element in determining happiness.

Adolescence

The word adolescence literally means 'to mature.' It's a stage that exists in between childhood and maturity, with characteristics of both but not fully encompassing either. The participants' ages range from 12 to 19. It marks the beginning of maturity. Physical changes occur quickly, including sexual maturity, which is reached during adolescence. As a result, psychological and societal changes occur. Adolescence is a critical period in a person's life. Furthermore, it frequently encounters a variety of issues. Adolescents are extremely vulnerable. This must be grasped and handled with extreme caution. 

The following are the developmental tasks for adolescents.
  • Coming to terms with ones own body and accepting the changes. 
  • Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes. 
  • Selecting and training for a career. 
  • Desiring, accepting and achieving socially responsible behaviour. 
  • Achieving emotional and economic independence. 
  • Gaining self identity.

Physical Changes

Sexual maturity, which occurs at puberty, is the most significant change that happens during adolescence. For roughly two years (prepubescence or prepuberty), the body prepares for it, then adjusts and becomes completely functioning for another two years (post pubescence/after puberty). The term 'growth spurt' refers to rapid changes in height and weight. In girls, puberty signals the start of the menstrual cycle, while in boys, it signifies the start of nocturnal emissions. Both internal and exterior changes occur during puberty. The reproductive cycle is triggered by hormones produced by the endocrine system. Female hormones Estrogen and Progesterone, as well as male hormones Androgen and Testosterone, are the most important. Secondary sexual features such as facial hair (beard and moustache growth) in males and breast development in females are examples of external alterations. As a result, the body assumes an adult shape, and the voice changes as well.

Emotionality and Social Behaviour

Adolescence, according to Stanley Hall, is a time of'storm and stress.' Hormones, growth spurts, and reproductive maturity all have an emotional impact in addition to their physical effects. The adolescent's emotional pattern is known as 'heightened emotionality,' in which the person is irritable, moody, illogical, or feels passionately. However, as adolescence gives way to adulthood, maturity sets in and the person learns to adjust correctly.

The impact of the peer group grows. The teenager becomes aware of and interested in the opposing sex. During this time, students learn how to make friends and adjust to new social settings in school, as well as how to look for a job. Personal grooming, appearance, and clothing attract a lot of attention. Adolescents also think about a variety of philosophical concerns and try to answer questions like "Who am I?" "What is the point of life?" you might wonder. When the search for identity takes a meaningful course, it allows the teenager to adjust smoothly, whereas identity crisis leads to future confusion and doubt.

Moral Development

The mechanism of moral code should be developed by adolescence. Morality must be based on internal control rather than external factors such as fear, punishment, or social ramifications. While these reasons may prevent the adolescent, he or she eventually learns to make decisions on his or her own.

Hazards in Adolescence

While disease rates are low, suicide rates are high due to accidents and conflicts. Inability to make the transition into adulthood creates psychological risks. Social rejection is a significant source of danger, particularly for people of the opposite sex.

Happiness

Adolescents' happiness is determined by their social and familial adjustments. Choosing and training for a career can help you achieve happiness. Adolescents have reasons to be well adjusted and happy if their professional goals are reasonable and reachable.

Adulthood

Adulthood is the stage where growth is complete and the person assumes various responsibilities. Starting around 18 years, it extends till middle age which is around 45 years. The developmental tasks for this stage of life are as follows:
Adults, like all other stages of development, have developmental duties that are referred to as "Vital roles." We all have a'status,' a socially acknowledged and regularised position. The status of being a son, an officer, or a captain, for example. One must execute specific activities or fulfil certain responsibilities, which are referred to as 'roles,' depending on the rank one holds. The dynamic side of the status is the role. Taking the situation further, the son is responsible for his parents, and the captain is in charge of the team. Adult duties are so crucial that they are referred to as critical roles, and each adult fulfils them. Worker, spouse, and parent are examples of these roles.

Role of Worker

While disease rates are low, suicide rates are high due to accidents and conflicts. Inability to make the transition into adulthood creates psychological risks. Social rejection is a significant source of danger, particularly for people of the opposite sex.
  • Reasons why the job was selected 
  •  Preparation for working 
  •  Training and qualification 
  •  Experience and expertise, skill in performance 
  •  Personal interest 
  •  Willingness to learn and adjust ‘the attitude’ 
  •  Money
The adult is vocationally adjusted if these factors are more or less balanced. Adjustment is essential not only for the individual, but also for the family. If he is a travelling executive on long tours, for example, the family must find a means to acclimatise to the situation. Adults who are able to balance their financial obligations are often well adjusted.

Marriage Partner

Taking up the responsibility of a spouse and fulfilling this role greatly contributes to a person’s life, happiness and adjustment. Marital adjustment depends mainly on the following factors:
  • Age at marriage 
  •  Type of marriage—arranged or love marriage
  •  Courtship or prior knowledge about the partner
  • Similarities/differences in backgrounds 
  •  Sharing of interests 
  •  Willingness to make the marriage work and having a positive attitude
According to the adage, marriages are made in heaven. However, the couple must work hard to maintain the planet healthy! In order to be successful in marriage, you must succeed in a number of areas. In order for a marriage to work, both spouses must be satisfied. The basis of a marriage is built on marital commitment and trust. The importance of communication between partners cannot be overstated. In addition, husband and wife must have a mutual respect for one another and a desire for harmony. Aside from that, the pair must adjust to each other's interests, work responsibilities, and personalities. Another area is sexual fulfilment. Money management, spending, and saving, if not done properly, can wreak turmoil in a marriage. Adjustments in these areas can actually transform a marriage into a source of joy.

Parental Role

As a family grows and children are added, it is important to recognise that it entails a tremendous deal of responsibility. The desire for children, the number of children, the time when they are born, the sex of the children, the spacing between children, the ability to support them, the child rearing procedures employed by parents, and the acceptance of children all play a role in adjusting to parenthood.

If children are raised with loving care and acceptance, they can make a significant contribution to their parents' mental well-being. The parental position must be approached with dedication and imagination. If your children are disobedient, unwell, or apathetic, adjusting to parenthood can be difficult. Those who choose not to have children enjoy greater independence, but they miss out on the delights of a child's affection and company.

Middle Age

The period between maturity and old age is known as middle age. It begins at the age of 45 and ends when old age sets in. It is a transitional time between adulthood and old age. It is defined by accomplishments, both professional and personal. It's a period when introspection is used to assess one's life. As children leave home, it's known as the "empty nest" era. Many observers see it as a period of stress, dubbed "Middle Age" crises by some.

The developmental tasks of the middle-aged adult are focused on professional achievement, marriage adjustment, and kid pleasure. At work, the person achieves enormous success and reaches a pinnacle. The marriage may be shattered or strengthened depending on the foundations. As they enter early adulthood, the relationship with children takes on a new level.

Physical Changes

Men and women go through a bodily deterioration after their active reproductive cycle is through. Menopause is when a woman's menstrual cycle comes to an end. She is unable to bear children as a result of this. Other symptoms emerge as a result of the drop in hormones that leads to menopause in women. Weight increase around the midsection, joint discomfort, changes in look such as grey hairs and sagging muscles, and dental and visual issues all slow down life. Men may question their own virility as a result of lower sexual urge and motivation. As youth fades, refocusing becomes more important.

Emotional Changes

Reduced hormones cause dramatic bodily changes, as well as emotional ups and downs. The middle-aged adult experiences mood swings, loneliness, and the blues. Negative sentiments and stress are caused by sensations of limited function, unattractiveness, and the like, which, if left untreated, can build into a full-blown crisis situation. Emotional stability can be attained through fulfilling career, hobbies, and relationships. For tranquilly, power, and meaning, many people turn to religion and God.

Social Changes

Social activities and obligations become more important as people reach middle age. Children and their families provide a sense of fulfilment. Friends and peer group members are critical in assisting one in realising that he or she is not alone.

Accepting the journey of life, with all of its twists and turns, leads to happiness. Developing and experiencing work goals, as well as accomplishing them, as well as increased family intimacy and societal contributions, all add worth to a person's life.

Old Age

While a person can feel and act quite old at the age of 45, another person at the age of 85 can live an active life in good health. Around the age of 65, one enters old age, sometimes known as the evening of life. Senior citizen refers to an elderly individual. Physical strength and social interaction deteriorate as people get older. Unlike previous periods, it is not welcomed.

Physical Changes

The many organs and organ systems slow down as strength falls. Diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, and other ailments are widespread among the elderly. Walking, seeing, hearing, and other disabilities limit a person in a variety of ways. The person becomes reliant on others as a result of these limitations.

Psychological Changes

An elderly individual is frequently lonely. The disease and limitations create a severe sense of inadequacy, which is exacerbated by the person's need. They are predisposed to depression and irritability. The death of a spouse sends a person into a state of despair, making him or her feel completely helpless. The elderly person's memory degrades, causing additional complications. Death phobia can be a powerful emotion. Fears that he or she might become invalid and a burden to others are fairly common.

Social Changes

Retirement is a common occurrence among the elderly. Their hectic lives come to a screeching halt. Possibilities for reemployment may be limited. As a result, the elderly person is frustrated by having too much free time, too little job, and limited mobility. It is vital to redirect and reorganise one's entire lifestyle in order to include significant pursuits. For various reasons, the members of the peer group are no longer available. Widows and widowers have an unfavourable social status. Totally reliant on others for even the most basic necessities,

As an individual, he or she must accept personal responsibility for oneself, which is a significant achievement. Rather than the others in the social circle, the developmental tasks become the individual's life and existence.

In old life, happiness revolves around offspring and their well-being. Simple occurrences and recollections, as well as shared affection and concern, provide the elderly person a sense of fulfilment.

Summary

We've covered the stages of human development in this piece, including prenatal development, infancy, babyhood, early and late childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middle age, and old age. We looked at the traits, milestones, and physical and mental development of each stage. There are additional references to sources of happiness.

Refereces

  • Havighurst R. J. (1953), Human Development and Education, Longmans, New York. 
  • Hurlock Elizabeth B (1964), Child Development, 6th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, New York. 
  • Hurlock Elizabeth B (1980), Developmental Psychology, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. 
  • Kuppuswamy B. (1974), A Text book of Child Behaviour & Development, Konark Publishers, New Delhi.

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