Historical Background of Social Work Practicum in US

The social work profession was not initially planned or thought out. It was born out of human needs and suffering. A helping hand was instinctive in various parts of the world. Social, political, and professional pressures all influenced the development of social work. Economic changes, wars, and the rise of other helping professions all contributed significantly to the development of social work as a profession. It is critical that social work be recognized as a profession so that clients can feel confident that they are receiving services from practitioners who adhere to an ethical code of conduct.

It would increase public and professional respect for social work. This would ensure that qualified social workers are recruited. A social worker's work is personally fulfilling, financially rewarding, and provides a higher status than other professions. When people were unable to cope with their problems, when their suffering could not be alleviated by the social network, or when help was unavailable, various helping professions arose. 

They attended to the physical, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, and social needs of those around them. It was quickly recognised that when professionals possessed advanced knowledge and skills, the intervention was more effective and efficient. As the profession's knowledge base expanded through additional theory, concept, and practise, membership became more restrictive and exclusive. The line between professions became more defined. Because social work is concerned with both the individual and the environment, it has both public and private career models. Social workers have opportunities to work in both the public and private sectors. The history of social work has resulted in changes to social workers' education and practical training.

Social Work Practice in the United States of America

Social work evolved as a result of a variety of events, including wars, economic depression, political stances taken, and international circumstances. The history of the United States is used to illustrate the evolution of social work and, more specifically, practical training in the field. Some aspects of the country's early history are comparable to that of India. Indian social work has its origins in selfless assistance to the poor. Whether Hindus, Muslims, or Christians, each religion placed a premium on helping the poor and needy. To be a decent person, it was necessary to assist the poor. Numerous organisations that aided the impoverished have existed for years.

It has not been easy to establish social work as a profession. In general, Indians believe that social work should be done out of the goodness of one's heart and should not be compensated. It has not been easy for the profession to demonstrate to the public the impact of less dramatic change than occurs in the medical field.

Several significant events that influenced the evolution of social work as a profession are listed in Table (Morales and Sheaffor, 1995).

Volunteering as a Career and Social Work as a Profession

As the table above indicates, social work practice began as a voluntary endeavor in response to human needs. When family and mutual aid proved insufficient, volunteers stepped in to assist the poor and infirm.

At the time, social workers were required to complete a practicum at the agency. In schools, there was no organised learning. All training occurred on the job, and volunteers gained knowledge solely through experience and that of their supervisors and predecessors. Social agencies arose in response to the need to relate warmly to those seeking assistance.

It was quickly recognized that social workers required compensation, transforming social work into an occupation. Wars, the passage of legislation, specific administrations that favored particular programmes, welfare programmes, and events and movements all aided in the development of social work as a profession. The wars spawned a slew of female leaders who took it upon themselves to secure federal funding for the causes they championed. In the late nineteenth century, social research was conducted to ascertain the causes of poverty and to make recommendations for its alleviation. Mary Richmond introduced the first theory of practise with her works "Friendly visiting among the poor" (1899) and "Social Diagnosis" (1900). (1917).

The establishment of settlement houses also resulted in a shift in workers' attitudes toward clients who came to learn urban living skills. Social workers were introduced in the early twentieth century, and they contributed to the development of children's and other welfare programmes. Casework in child welfare agencies and charitable organisations was constrained by a narrow economic base and focus. Medical social work in hospitals has altered the scope of casework and the underlying causes of patient problems. The medical social worker placed a premium on the social and psychological aspects of patients' illnesses.

Social workers also worked in fields such as mental health, correctional facilities, schools, and the labour industry. This paved the way for specialised social work practicums. The National Conference on Charities brought together volunteer and professional staff from social agencies to discuss social services, current issues, and practical work being done. This demonstrates that there was concern for the development of practical work and the manner in which it should be carried out. By 1914, social work had established itself as a distinct occupation, distinct from volunteers and other professions assisting the poorest members of society.

It was discovered that when theoretical knowledge, values, and abilities were appropriately channelled to the appropriate target group or individual, the outcome was more successful. With the development of concepts and theories and the intensification of social work programmes, membership requirements became more stringent and education became more specialised. This resulted in an increase in the profession's exclusivity.

Social Work as a Profession in the United States of America

These notions of social work as a profession reaffirmed the importance of formal field training. To develop professional field training, skills must be better grounded in fundamental concepts such as a critically defensible knowledge base. Concentrated objectives, techniques, and field training would all aid in achieving such objectives. Abraham Flexner (1915) established the following criteria on the basis of which he declared categorically that social work is not a profession:

1) Professions entail a great deal of individual accountability.

2) Professions are primarily cognitive operations.

3) Professions are founded on science and education.

4) Professions bring the foundation to a practical and unambiguous conclusion.

5) Professions employ a technique that is educationally communicable.

6) In general, professions self-organize.

7) Professions' motivations become increasingly altruistic.

Mary Richmond noted in 1921 that social work required a code of ethics in order to maintain a high social standing among professions. The proposal to draught such a code was initiated by the National Conference on Social Welfare, but it did not materialize at the time. The National Social Workers' Exchange was founded in 1917 to provide vocational counselling and placement services while also defining and identifying professional standards.

The American Association of Social Workers attempted to establish a unified professional association at the time, but there were numerous specialized groups attempting to establish their own identities (1918, American Association of Hospital Social Workers, 1919, National Association of Visiting Teachers, 1926, American Association of Psychiatric Social Workers, 1936, American Association for the Study of Group Work, 1946, Association for the Study of Community Organization, 1949, Social ). The struggle of these groups to advance and maintain their identity exemplifies the profession of social work as a whole. The need for a single unifying professional association was even greater.

Students received training in hospitals, psychiatric facilities, and in the community. Students received instruction in working with both individuals and groups. Simultaneously, there was a battle at the administrative level to instil a set of standards that social workers would adhere to in order to protect clients. Students were educated in specialised fields based on the nature of the problem and the environment in which the clients operated. This further shifted the profession's focus away from its core competencies, values, and knowledge base.

Until 1919, social work education was primarily agency-based. The Association of Training Schools for Professional Social Workers was then formed (to establish standards in professional social work education), comprised of representatives from agency and university-affiliated schools.

This was later renamed the American Association of Schools of Social Work, which stipulated that only two-year graduate programmes qualifying as professional social work education would be recognised. At the time, agencies and universities offered social work education programmes. These centres refused to adhere to the two-year requirement, which resulted in the formation of the National Association of Schools of Social Administration, which consisted of public universities that offered baccalaureate and one-year master's programmes in social administration. They saw no reason for a two-year programme with a heavy emphasis on professional case work.

In 1952, these two organisations amalgamated to form the Council of Social Work Education. This was in response to the Hollis-Taylor study of social work education, which recommended a two-year graduate programme as the bare minimum requirement for becoming a professional social worker. At the time, social work knowledge and skills were also given due consideration. In her book "Social Diagnosis," Richmond compiled a variety of techniques for caseworkers to use in a variety of settings. This developmental surge was somewhat hampered by the profession's obsession with psychoanalytic approaches and techniques. For a time, there were no advances in the field of social work that developed methods other than casework.

The formation of the Temporary Inter-Association Council of Social Work Membership Organizations demonstrated the need for a unified association. This organisation was formed in 1952 as a result of the merger of the American Association of Social Workers and several other specialised organisations. The National Association of Social Workers was formed through the consolidation of several specialist associations that fought tooth and nail to preserve their identities. The NASW's objectives are as follows:

1) To improve the efficiency with which social work services are administered

2) To advance social work research

To effect positive changes in the practise of social work

4) To further the advancement of social work education

5) To ameliorate socioeconomic conditions

6) To educate the public about the field of social work

7) To improve wages and working conditions

8) To create, publish, and enforce a code of ethics

9) To certify social workers' competence

10) To contribute to the growth of social work in other countries

11) To attract new members to the profession

The Academy of Certified Social Workers stipulated that applicants must be NASW members and have completed a two-year supervised experience.

Numerous jobs necessitated membership in the Academy.

The 1950's were a time of debate over the nature and future of social work. Greenwood (1957) used a comparative approach to identify the characteristics of a profession. They included a body of systematic knowledge, professional authority, a code of ethics, and a professional culture. According to these criteria, he concluded that social work was a legitimate profession.

After a year, the NASW developed a working definition of social work practise that defined the profession's boundaries. Gordon provided feedback on the definition, which aided in clarifying the definition's knowledge, values, and practise methodology. The Code of Ethics was established in 1960 to guide ethical professional social work practise. Social work had developed into a recognised profession with its own jargon that distinguished it from other fields.

Graduate schools were either university-based or university-affiliated, and they could be accredited according to specific standards. All of the changes and growth in the profession do not actually cause the social worker to stray from the primary goal of putting the client's needs first in the field.

Its primary mission remained to serve the poor.

Several states have even begun licencing social workers.

However, a professional social worker must do more than simply "help." It is critical for supervisors to stay current with changes in the profession and to encourage students to connect history and current events in social work, as well as to observe how events have shaped field work over time. Organizations that once served the profession are discovered to be ineffective and can thus be consolidated into a single unifying unit. The consolidation of all associations into a single body reaffirmed the determination to create a single unique profession. Professionals understand that, while the primary goal of social work is to "help," the political aspects of the profession have an impact on the nature of practise.

In India, specialist associations make a concerted effort to preserve their identity (which weakens the professional identity).

For example, psychiatric social workers identify more with their multidisciplinary team members. The National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences offers psychiatric social workers a two-year postmaster's degree (Master of Philosophy in PSW). Only 12 students were offered this prestigious course in the entire country after passing an entrance exam and interview. The curriculum is designed to provide social workers with predoctoral training. The training is rigorous and heavily weighted toward the field of psychiatry (Neurology and Neurosurgery). Students spend the majority of their practicum days conducting intake interviews, making provisional diagnoses, prognoses, and treating patients. This could be a result of administrative policy dictated by the need for additional professionals to care for the large number of patients from all over India. Individuals, families, and groups do receive some social work intervention during training.

At the conclusion of the two-year programme, the student is familiar with psychiatric disorders, as well as some neurological and neurosurgical terms. The research and core professional development of social workers are somewhat diluted. Weekly social work conferences and supervisory meetings provide an opportunity for future growth.

From the Elitist Model to the Present

With the movements for women's rights, civil rights, and welfare rights at the end of the 1960s, there was a shift away from clinical social work and toward social action and social welfare. Controversy was sparked by those who supported the clinical social work viewpoint in order to strengthen the profession and those who believed in social change. The Lyndon B. Johnson administration and increased federal support fueled this. However, federal funding for welfare was reduced during the Reagan and Bush administrations, and social workers were forced to return to clinical work. A generalist approach was taken in social work practise.

The NASW relaxed its membership requirements, allowing more people to join. A baccalaureate graduate of a CSWE-accredited undergraduate programme may be eligible to join. The Academy of Certified Baccalaureate Social Workers was founded in 1990, with the goal of focusing NASW on multilevel social work. Many baccalaureate programmes were recognised by CSWE based on specific requirements. Many of these programmes were located in both urban and rural settings. Many aspiring social workers who would not have been able to attend urban schools were able to take advantage of the schools in their area as a result of this. Many students from low-income and disadvantaged backgrounds were given the opportunity to complete the educational requirements without needing both levels of social work degrees. Graduates may also be able to find work in smaller communities where urban graduates may have been hesitant to accept positions.

This shift has an impact on the types of field work available to students. Students can be placed in small rural organisations. They were not required to complete their practicum in cities. According to Gore (1988), the problems encountered by the social work profession stem from a schism between rural and urban life. This is especially important in India, where the majority of the population lives in rural areas. The primary way of life is agricultural. Students who want to work as social workers cannot only train in cities and then hope to work in rural areas. It is critical to focus on rural areas and train students in those settings in order to effect social change. The majority of social work schools are located in urban areas. It may be difficult to establish universities in rural areas, but distance learning can open doors to many more rural students.

Satellite centres that provide distance learning assistance and a library would be beneficial. According to Gore (1988), social work education must find a viable link between the professional function of social work and the development process.

Part of the practicum in social work schools in India focuses on community organising. Students do get to attend a few mahila mandal (women's group) meetings, see the balwadi (pre-school for children – usually free and offered by the government in rural areas, but can also be private in urban areas) in action, and possibly meet the community's head person or people. It is difficult for the student to understand how social work intervention in the community works in practise. Some schools sponsor community-based free meal programmes or skill-based programmes. Students can then see how this benefits the members of the community. Some urban schools provide opportunities for students from rural areas to conduct social research. Other urban schools collaborate with medical and psychiatric outpatient clinics that provide free checkups. Students frequently get to see how these programmes work and may assist in setting up the clinic and handing out free materials. At these clinics, students rarely see any social work intervention.

Education and Inter-Disciplinary Practice

Many service organisations that assisted clients employed people from various helping professions. Often, the lines between the various helping professions were blurred. There were instances where professionals' duties overlapped. To avoid turf disputes and trouble, as well as to provide clients with a smooth service, teamwork and interdisciplinary cooperation were required. Students learn about collaboration in theory, but they often get to put it into practise during practicum.

Students learn the importance of adhering to the protocol and working within the parameters that have been established. At the same time, it is advantageous to collaborate with other professionals to ensure that the client receives the best service possible. Case managers are also in charge of individual cases, ensuring that services are not duplicated and that the client receives all necessary assistance. This collaboration of various related professions is also important so that each professional does not falsely believe that the other is caring for the client and then allows the client to fall through the cracks. A well-managed team approach ensures that interdisciplinary work proceeds smoothly. The field work supervisor (who may be the case manager of the cases assigned to the student) assists the student with the cases and is responsible for ensuring that the client receives the best possible care. In turn, the student must ensure that the work completed is documented in the case file and that discussions with the field work supervisor are not overlooked. This ensures that work is not duplicated or simply not completed.

When it is not possible to carry out a specific request or job, the student should discuss it with the supervisor, who may delegate it to another social worker.

In India, the interdisciplinary approach appears to be most effective in a medical or psychiatric facility. A hospital has a team of professionals who go on rounds to discuss patients' problems, treatment, and prognosis. The role of the social worker is well defined, whether it is working with the patient's family, community resources, or the patient's attitudes and feelings. The practicum student collaborates with the team while being supervised by a field social worker. The social work student gets a sense of working with a team and collaborating harmoniously for the benefit of the patient.

This type of teamwork can be seen in a variety of settings where social work is part of a team. In an industrial setting, it may entail collaborating with the union or management for the benefit of the workers. In a correctional setting, this could imply collaborating with the administration, legal system, and/or psychologist to assist the client.

The school system includes school administrators, school psychologists, health professionals, and special education experts, with whom the social worker collaborates to help students. In any case, the student participating in a practicum can benefit from learning how to work in a team.

This process is aided by skills such as adjustment, contact, listening, and teamwork.

Practicum in India is fraught with difficulties. Working with people of different languages, religions, castes, cultures, and socioeconomic backgrounds is difficult. The student enters the classroom with pre-existing beliefs and values. They may be in conflict with social work values as well as societal values. A social worker from a middle-class family (who prioritised hard work and education) may find it difficult to work with an upper-class or upper-caste youth who has paid a large amount of money in donations to get into a medical school. Respecting the client from the start may be difficult for the student who is angry with people who use money to get what they want regardless of merit.

A student from a high caste, on the other hand, may have similar feelings toward a client from the lowest caste (harijan or sudra) because the client got into engineering as a result of the government's reservation policy for the backward community. It is critical that those feelings do not transfer to the practicum setting, where the clients' current problem, rather than societal values or prejudices, is the focus.

Women's low status, problems with girl children, and men's attitudes toward women all play important roles in field work. It is difficult for a student who understands that equal status should be given to both genders to witness the submissiveness of girls and women in a community where male dominance is prevalent. Students may become enraged at such injustice and may be provoked to a confrontation in which the clients are unaware that the situation is unjust or unacceptable. Women, too, are ingrained in a society where such injustices are accepted as part of religion (Muslim and Hindu) and a way of life. While participating in marital therapy, a female student may be prejudiced and take the side of the wife. Because of the bias that the female client is incapable of making decisions, a male student may be directive and refuse to allow the right to individual self-determination to play a role. For another reason, this right is rarely seen at work. In India, the professional has a higher status in the helping relationship, while the client is submissive and expects to be directed in the right direction.

Working with poverty at close quarters and on a regular basis has been difficult for students, despite the fact that they are exposed to it on a daily basis (Pawar, et. al., 2004). To conduct an educational group session in a slum, an urban student would have to walk through narrow squalid treets into small huts and shacks. The student may become overwhelmed by the filth and squalor and fail to see the positive. The student may very well transmit such disgust to the client, making him or her feel inadequate and inferior. Pawar et al. (2004) discuss how begging irritates students who are not used to it.

It is difficult for urban students to adjust to rural students' use of public transportation, infrastructure, and a different sense of time (Pawar, et al., 2004).

Public transportation may be infrequent and slow. It is difficult to locate a specific address in an urban slum or a village. It may be frustrating at first, but students should seek the assistance of locals to direct them to the correct location.

Farmers typically work in the fields early in the morning and take a break after lunch. Due to the seasonal nature of agriculture, they may appear to be lazy and demanding of their wives at times.

During peak planting and harvesting seasons, students may not see them at all. It is critical for students to make an effort to meet with clients when they have free time and to avoid intruding when they are extremely busy. The majority of the people in the villages are extremely hospitable and welcoming. The social work student must be careful not to take advantage of their friendliness.

When problems arise, longer supervisory sessions and a different set of communication skills are required (Pawar et al., 2004). The supervisor must be aware of the students' strengths and weaknesses.

Typically, the supervisor will have a brief daily conversation with the student about new and old cases. A time may be set at the end of the week to discuss progress, or lack thereof. There would be a lengthy feedback session at the end of the entire placement. However, this may not be sufficient for all students. Every day, a student may require a detailed discussion of the case. To carry out the responsibilities, the student may require a written set of instructions.

Students placed in medical settings in India often feel inferior to students in other interdisciplinary fields.

It is not uncommon for students to allow clients to refer to them as doctors or to refer to themselves as doctors.

Supervisors may introduce students to clients as doctors. Supervisors believe that because they are not doctors, clients will not want their services. This is unethical behaviour that should be avoided at all costs. Even if a few clients refuse to accept social work intervention, many more will reap the benefits. This further degrades the status of social work. Clients may mistakenly believe that doctors are assisting them in areas that are actually outside the scope of social work.

Students participating in research practicums (in medical settings) should adhere to the same ethical standards. Clients should be made aware of the true nature of the research and given the option to leave at any time without jeopardising their medical treatment, which was their primary reason for being there. Students are not uncommon in implying that the research is part of the medical treatment and that they will directly benefit from it. It is the supervisor's responsibility to clarify this and guide the student in maintaining proper social work practise standards. If the supervisor fails to do so, it is the students' responsibility to maintain high ethical standards when working with clients.