India's environment and culture - Part -2
Contents
- Introduction
- Coastal and IslandAreas
- Nomadic Communities of India
- Changing landscapes and cultures
Introduction
The variety of India's ecosystems mirrors the country's rich cultural heritage and is intimately connected to it. Numerous settlements can be found in the mountains, plains, and along the coasts; these towns all have their own unique ways of making a living. The communities have been profoundly impacted by the shifts in the social, political, and ecological elements, and as a result, we can observe many different shifts in the patterns of their ways of making a living today. The processes of homogenization and globalisation, which are sometimes deliberate and sometimes coerced, have resulted in irreversible changes to the terrain of India. Not only have historians and ecologists documented the changes, but members of the local communities have also chronicled the shifts via the use of myths, stories, songs, and other kinds of artistic expression.
Coastal and IslandAreas
Fishermen's communities and coastal farmers are supported by India's western and eastern coastal belts and its islands. The coastal plains are covered in paddy fields, coconut and areca nut plantations, orchards, and spice gardens. Beaches and estuaries are close by the fishing settlements. The Union Territories of Daman, Andaman, and Nicobar are included among the nine states that make up India's coastal areas. The people of coastal regions were in close contact with other parts of the world starting in 2000 BCE thanks to thriving maritime trade (Fuller et al., 2011). Roman pottery, coinage, and other artefacts that were transported inland from the coastlines have been discovered during excavations on the Deccan plateau. Ancient Indian coastal kingdoms were at their most powerful and glorious in monuments like the Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu and the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha.
Historically, woods were cleared for cultivation by traditional farmers like the Kokanas on the west coast. Communities like Agari and Agariya carried out the crucial activity of salt manufacture. The Nustekars in Goa and the Kolis in Western Maharashtra both engaged in river and sea fishing. Chinese fishing nets were used by some groups in Kerala to fish in the waterways. Around Kanyakumari, the Paravas live close to the Gulf of Mannar. They made salt and traded pearl oysters. West Bengal's Sundarbans is a distinctive region. Because of its extensive mangrove forests, it is a natural heritage site. There are numerous villages contained inside it, which spans Bangladesh and India. A significant source of income, fishing is done in the estuarine area utilising small boats. Even otters were once taught to fish by the locals. The otter pups were raised by hand and taught to propel fish into nets. At the conclusion of the hunt, they received fish as payment. In the dense trees, some cultures collect honey. However, the region's livelihoods are always under danger from powerful cyclones and the danger posed by the local wildlife. The islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep are the most distinctive among the coastal regions. In this region exist Negrito (Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese) and Malayan (Shompens) tribes. They are currently being pushed further into the jungles by settlers from the Indian mainland. The inhabitants of the Lakshadweep islands are descendants of pioneers who fled South India centuries ago. Their economy is built on the cultivation of coconuts, fishing, and tourism.
Through both hot and cold desert regions, the land path to India was a protracted and difficult voyage. As a result, marine routes were chosen, making the coastline regions the first places that visitors from outside India would encounter. As we can see, the Indian mosaic now includes the histories and cultures of every foreign settlement community.
Through both hot and cold desert regions, the land path to India was a protracted and difficult voyage. As a result, marine routes were chosen, making the coastline regions the first places that visitors from outside India would encounter. As we can see, the Indian mosaic now includes the histories and cultures of every foreign settlement community.
- Around the 7th century C.E., Parsis, who worshipped Zaratrushta, arrived in Sanjan on Gujarat's southern coast (Hinnells and Williams, 2007). They fled Central Asia, where they had lived, to avoid being persecuted for their faith. The Parsis emigrated to India and assimilated into the culture. However, they have been able to preserve their own culture and identity.
- Around 2000 years ago, both the early Christians and the Yehudis, or Jews, travelled to the western coast as traders. Both made distinct contributions to the local cultures through their trade, resource management, religious traditions, and food.
- Around 1500 C.E., the Siddis, a group of North African immigrants, most likely came on the west coast as slaves and mercenaries. But some Siddis grew strong enough.
- Around 1500 C.E., the Siddis, a group of North African immigrants, most likely came on the west coast as slaves and mercenaries. Nevertheless, certain Siddis were able to rise to positions of authority to join the kings' armies as generals and ministers.
As a result, many fortune seekers who travelled to India's west coast in pursuit of spices, cloth, gold, and jewels made their way there. Many of them made their homes there, married into local families, and contributed to the development of the Indian landscape. The south Indian kingdoms, particularly the Cholas, maintained significant economic and cultural ties with the rest of Asia, making the east coast historically significant as well. They were in charge of bringing Indian culture to Malaya's far eastern provinces. The most recent visitors to India were the Dutch, Portuguese, French, Danes, and British, who colonised various regions of the nation. These regions were only incorporated into the Indian Union after independence.
Nomadic Communities of India
Numerous nomadic groups have traversed the Indian landscape since the dawn of humanity. These groups typically migrated through a particular biogeographic or landscape region, but they had no permanent habitation. There are more than 100 of these communities, and each one has unique cultural traits and modes of subsistence.
Both the Phase-pardhis and the Baheliyas hunted for food and traded wild meat. King's hired the Pardhis to assist with hunting. Baheliyas hunted numerous different creatures, including sloth bears, tigers, and leopards, and traded the skins of such animals for items used for ritual or cultural purposes. Soothsayers known as "Nandiwallahs" would travel among communities pulling a large bull (Nandi). Caravans were used by a number of cultures, including the Lambadas, Lamans, Banjaras, and others, to transport grains and salt across India. They were frequently used by soldiers as food carriers. In every region of India, there were numerous nomadic dancers, singers, soothsayers, and blacksmiths. The traditional means of subsistence used by nomadic and semi-nomadic cultures heavily incorporated animals. With trained sloth bears, rhesus macaques, and snakes, the Madaris, Makadwallahs, and Garudis entertained the public. The Vaidus were a nomadic people that traded in drugs made from plants or animals. They were all connected to larger established settlements primarily by trade and service links. However, the villages they served scarcely accepted them and treated them with distrust. They never became a part of society. With the onset of colonial control, prejudices that already existed were even more pronounced.
Punjab and India's North-West Frontier Provinces saw the introduction of the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) by the British government in 1871. (presently area in Pakistan). This action was a part of a misguided campaign to reduce crime that labelled many Indian castes and clans as "Criminal Tribes." Because they wandered and lived on the periphery of civilization, more than 100 nomadic and semi-nomadic societies were labelled as criminal tribes. The Act was implemented across all of British India in 1911. The 1911 Act granted the local authority the authority to order the registration of all members of a criminal tribe (regardless of sex or age), to compel their forced settlement in fenced areas where they were required to take up employment, and to require their daily reporting to the local authorities. As a result, "Criminal Tribes" were able to establish settlements across the nation. They endured a lot of abuse and hardship. After India gained independence in 1947, the Government of Bombay formed a committee to investigate the situation and issues facing the criminal tribes and to make recommendations for ways to rehabilitate them without imprisoning them. All citizens are guaranteed equality of position and opportunity under the 1949 Indian Constitution, and every citizen is also guaranteed the right to a sufficient means of subsistence under the Directive Principles of State Policy. The Criminal Tribes Law (Repeal) Act, which was passed in 1952, caused the "criminal tribes" to be "denotified." The castes and tribes that the CTA had previously listed are now known as "denotified" castes and tribes.
Despite being emancipated from forced settlements, the majority of the people in these communities only had the customary skills, and they were obliged by their circumstances to return to their previous ways of life. However, the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 made it unlawful to hunt or retain several types of wild animals. They were consequently obliged to pursue alternative means of support, such as small-scale trading or wage labour in agriculture. A few residents of these settlements continue to hunt, fish, and trap, but it is no longer sustainable due to the destruction of the habitat and declining animals.
Changing landscapes and cultures
Unavoidable change. Time changes societies. Often, communities experiment with and choose the best solutions for themselves. Along the route, new or adapted livelihood possibilities appear. Some cultural traits are resistant to change, while others are quickly lost. Dress, rituals, and art have altered more slowly than dwellings, healthcare, and resource management. Government-promoted hybrids supplanted most indigenous livestock. The village was once resource-based. Globalization and materialism have changed community norms. TV and cellphones are popular. Most homesteads are surrounded by plastic and biodegradable trash. Government programmes and schemes have decreased sustainability while increasing short-term food and money gains. Many ecological and cultural changes are attributed to British colonisation. The British weren't solely to blame. Even before colonialism, groups from various regions often fought. Even though they traded, mountain and lowlands cultures had an unpleasant relationship. The hill tribes needed salt, wheat, and other supplies from plains-based traders who sold forest produce from the hills.
Each accused the other of unscrupulous commercial methods. Higher-caste communities, especially in Hinduism, were blamed for exploiting lower-caste communities. The wars between India's "Sansthans" caused much pain. Colonial policies on trade, education, land management, and natural resources tilted the power balance in favour of the wealthy and powerful. Many local communities were exploited. Marginal farmers, hill tribes, woodland dwellers, and salt manufacturers fought as much as possible. Communities revolted and armed themselves. It was pointless. Post-independence, various governments' development efforts affected the population greatly. Colonial restrictions on salt and bamboo exist today. Privatization of natural resources (via industrialization) has impacted traditional groups' natural resource management methods. Jarawas and other vulnerable tribes endure outside influences. Tourism invades their space in Jarawa Tribal Reserve, preventing them from being alone. Building a road through the forest hurt the area. The Supreme Court has restricted tourists from travelling Andaman Nicobar Trunk Road through Jarawa-inhabited districts. All commercial and tourism activities within 5 km of the Jarawa Tribal Reserve on Andaman & Nicobar Islands are restricted. Damming rivers, mining, and industrialization have irreparably damaged India's nature. The green revolution introduced large-scale irrigation, cash crops, hybrids, chemical fertilisers, and mechanised agriculture. Earthquakes, droughts, and cyclones devastated certain places. Because of severe landscape changes, communities couldn't tolerate further loss. By choice or coercion, millions of individuals left their familiar landscapes for metropolitan places. Privatization, liberalisation, and globalisation have transformed Indian society. Most have altered, except for a few in outlying places. Change hasn't always been peaceful. Communities resisted mines and dams. Some protests were violent and continue today. Social scientists and environmentalists have documented many of these changes and disputed their implications on nature and India's culture. But there's hope. Slowly but surely, regulations and legislation have started focusing on sustainable development, which includes protecting nature and natural resources as well as 4000+ year old cultures.
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