India's environment and culture

Introduction
Mountain regions
The Plains of India

Introduction

The traits and knowledge of a group of people make up their culture. Language, religion, food, social customs and traditions, music, the arts, and other things define it and reflect it. Culture is described as "common patterns of behaviour and interaction, cognitive conceptions and knowledge that are gained through socialisation" by the Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition.

People interact with their surroundings all the time. They rely on the area's natural resources to survive. Therefore, all facets of culture are significantly influenced by the regional environment. However, this is altering as commercial forces and globalisation begin to have a greater impact on human cultures than their immediate natural surroundings.

India is the home to many different civilizations due to its tremendous environmental diversity and wildlife. In India, biological and cultural diversity are intertwined. In one geographical area, there are numerous communities coexisting that follow various customs and rituals while adhering to various religious and philosophical systems. Conflicts are less likely because they use different resources or use them in different ways. The geography and biodiversity of India as we know it now are the consequence of centuries of human use, which has led to the evolution of beliefs, rituals, and behaviours.

Mountain regions

Himalayas

A summer-winter altitudinal migration connects the pastoralists of the Ladakh plateau in the Trans-Himalayan region to the ecology. Additionally, there are transient migrations determined by the availability of grass. This only takes place on a small local scale, though.

A pastoral community in Ladakh is called the Changpa. They are thought to have migrated from Tibet to this area around the ninth century CE. Up until the 1962 Indo-China War, they shared pasturelands with the Tibetans. They also practise marginal farming in some areas. But herding goats is what the area is most suited for. Today, Pashmina shawls, known for their beauty and softness, are made from the wool of Pashmina goats raised in the Changpa herd. Yaks are also herded for milk and as pack animals. Through one of the coldest desert places on earth, they travel with their animals.

The rest of India is shielded from the chilly winds coming from the North by the spectacular Himalayan mountain ranges. Numerous climate zones, from tropical jungles and valleys in the east to temperate and alpine regions on the mountain tops, can be found within these ranges.

Farmers and shepherds are the two main traditional communities in this area. They live in the western Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh, the lower slopes of the central Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh mountain ranges, and the northwestern Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Gujjars are pastoralists who live in the Himalayan high-altitude grasslands. They also do marginal farming. Goats are herded by the Sunni Muslim Bakarwals. They climb and descend the Himalayan mountains in search of grazing for their cattle. Another ethnic group residing in the Himalayas is the Bhotias. At first, they were merchants in the Himalayan passes. They now raise animals in addition to working in agriculture.

The eastern Himalayas are a well-known biodiversity hotspot in the world. Diverse communities there also engage in established and peripatetic agriculture, combining it with cattle raising, hunting, and gathering. Among the most important ethnic groups in the area are the Adi, Abor, Apatani, Nyishi, Mishmi, and Nagas. The majority of the communities in this region still use their own systems of chiefs and village councils to make all decisions pertaining to the usage of natural resources in their villages.

Communities with access to valley areas have built elaborate terraced rice fields. The hills on which the terraces are built follow their contours, and water for agricultural is controlled using conventional techniques like channels and bamboo pipes.

Western Ghats

Another impressive mountain range in India is the Western Ghats, sometimes referred to as the Sahyadris. It is the Deccan Plateau's western escarpment. Also known as a hotspot for biodiversity, the Western Ghats. These hills are covered in a variety of forests, from dry to moist evergreen. Local farmers cultivate paddy in terraces on the gentler slopes while growing minor millets in changing fields on the harder hills. In addition, they gather biomass from the forest to use as fertiliser on their farms. Sacred groves, which are forested areas consecrated to the local deity, still exist in many communities. Large sections of the Western Ghats have been turned into coffee and tea plantations, dramatically altering the surrounding landscape. Some of the communities in the Maharashtra region of the Western Ghats include the Mahadeo Kolis and Katkari. The term "Katkari" refers to a group of people who traditionally produced edible resin from Acacia catechu trees, known as "kat'or catechu." They were adept in fishing and hunting, as well as small-scale shifting cultivation. They included gathering of forest products like honey, gum, and mahua in their subsistence activities.

Another group of people who reside in the foothills of the Western Ghats' northern portion are the Warlis. They worked as paddy farmers. Their primary deity was the tiger, Waghoba, and the area is still home to numerous temples to him. The unusual painting technique used by Warlis to decorate their homes with rice flour is well known. The paintings include many wild creatures, birds, and plants, as well as their daily activities including farming, dancing, playing, and collecting toddy. The paintings are the result of close cultural and natural interaction, etc. Unfortunately, the Warli aesthetic has been appropriated for profit. Many communities rely on the natural resources of the mountains in the southern portion of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. The Kanis of Kerala's Agasthyamalai region are renowned for their extensive knowledge of therapeutic plants. The Toda community of the Nilgiri hills is renowned for its unique lifestyles and is home to popular hill towns like Udhagamandalam (Ooty), Kodaikanal (Kodai), and Coonoor. They were pastoral buffalo herders who produced butter and other dairy goods. They let buffalo graze in the broad, rolling grassy hills and deep, evergreen forest patches that make up the Shola region's unique biodiversity. Their homes were made entirely of thatching and wood, with curved roofs and ornamented panels. The shawls made by the Todas with distinctive patterns in black, white, and red have earned them worldwide fame. Over time, many of the local communities of the Western Ghats, particularly in the southern portion, have been displaced. Their natural resource base was depleted and pushed labourers as a result of the conversion of forests into industrial crops. Ironically, the exclusionary Protected Area strategy to biodiversity protection resulted in the displacement of numerous indigenous groups from recently established National Parks and Sanctuaries. All of the relocated people experienced suffering and a loss of their social and natural capital, which ultimately led to their destitution, with the notable exception of eco-development initiatives in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. The foundation of their livelihood, NTFP, was rendered inaccessible. Rising elephant, tiger, and other mammal conflicts have rendered mountain agriculture unprofitable. Many are compelled to travel to the plains and rural areas, at least seasonally. Few have been able to adapt to the new conservation regimes that were created for them.

The Irulas of Tamil Nadu were well-known for catching snakes and dealing in their skins and venom. For the creation of anti-venom that can be used to treat bites from deadly snakes, snake venom is in high demand. Snake trading and capture were both prohibited by the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. Today, however, the Irulas have established a cooperative and have a licence for scientifically-based, sustainably extracted snake venom thanks to the assistance of Madras Crocodile Bank Trust. The challenges experienced by the local forest residents in the Western Ghats are a result of growing development pressures brought on by urbanisation, mining, and dams. To safeguard the area's natural resources and cultural diversity, several organisations have come together.

The Central Highlands

The Narmada and Tapi rivers' valleys are located between the Vindhya and Satpuda mountain ranges, which extend from west to east. India is split into its northern and southern halves by them. There are various tribal groups that are mostly forest dwellers in the region that includes Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and parts of northern Andhra. There were numerous wild herbivore herds and powerful predators in the highlands. Since prehistoric times, people have lived in this area. The Stone Age (about 30,000 years ago) Bhimbetka cave drawings in Madhya Pradesh provide proof of the presence of early humans in this area. Among the largest ethnic groups in this area are the Gonds, Baigas, and Bhils. In Indian legendary epics, their region is referred to as Gondwana, or the forests of the Gonds. It is also the name of the pre-continental shift supercontinent that included the combined landmasses of Africa, India, South America, Madagascar, and Australia. The Gonds and Baigas have particular painting techniques and art forms that depict a variety of natural and legendary plants and creatures that are important to their culture. Handmade iron artefacts are well known from Bastar (Chhattisgarh). Jewelry, woodwork, and bamboo crafts are all distinctive to these regions and their cultures.

These tribal groups were renowned for having enormous, dispersed kingdoms governed by ferocious warriors. Up until the arrival of the British, the Gond monarchs had battled all foreign invaders. The Gonds, Baigas, Marias, and many other people were marginalised as a result of British-led commercial forestry activities, the forcible invasion of settlers under government protection, and the ban on shifting agriculture, which was the fundamental foundation of tribal culture.

To protest the appropriation of their lands and woods, many people, including the Baigas, Gonds, and Bhils, rose up in revolt against the British authority. The revolt was ruthlessly put down by the colonial authorities, but it is still remembered as one of the many tales of India's struggle for independence. These locations are covered by the Indian Constitution's Fifth Schedule, which calls for special consideration of the requirements of territories that are primarily tribal. Due to local people' resentment of outside incursion and unrestrained resource exploitation, the majority of these places are now the sites of violent confrontation between the local populations and the government. Mining—the area is rich in bauxite and other ores—poses a severe danger to the region's land and forests and is also causing widespread population relocation.

Eastern Ghats

Along India's eastern coast, there is a disjointed mountain range known as the Eastern Ghats. They travel from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu via Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers—the four largest in southern India—erode and pierce them. The Eastern Ghats mountain ranges parallel the Bay of Bengal. The states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh have dense woods. However, open scrub and grasslands, which are heavily used, cover the majority of the area. There are numerous tribal communities in the Odisha regions of Koraput and Simlipal, which are listed in the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. One of India's oldest tribal groups, the Juangs are considered a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group and are located in the Odisha district of Keonjhar. They engage in subsistence farming today. The Habitat Rights section of the Forest Rights Act of 2006 has been used by the Juangs to claim their territory, but they have not yet been entirely successful.

The Plains of India

Thar Desert

Rajasthan contains a sizable desert area called the Thar. It also goes by the name Marubhumi. The Indus Valley Civilization originated in this area, reached its height of prosperity, and ultimately perished as a result of climatic change and, as many academics assume, changes in the Saraswati River's course. Farmers in the countryside supported the civilization of the Indus valley. With only a few centimetres of annual rainfall, the environment is harsh and extremely dry. However, the populace has devised sophisticated water saving strategies and survived in the harsh environment.

As water conservation was considered to be a sacred obligation, a variety of wells, or kuins, tankas (tanks), and ponds were created and maintained by commoners, kings, and local saints. The pastoral economy helps dryland agriculture. Camel, goat, and cattle breeders also market milk and milk-related items. The White Revolution, sometimes known as the Milk Revolution, has been a significant economic force in this region. The population is renowned for its heavy gold and silver jewellery as well as its vividly coloured garments. Rajasthani musicians and dancers have spread traditional music and dance throughout the world. Rajasthan is a popular tourist destination, and in desert regions, tourism is becoming a significant source of income. Hindi films have made the enormous shifting sand dunes, majestic forts, and castles constructed by the past monarchs prominent and sought-after tourist spots.

The Kutch, a desert region in Gujarat, is very different from the Thar. Gujarat has a district called Kutch, which is alternatively written Kachchh. The Rann of Kutch, a shallow wetland that is submerged during the rainy season and turns dry during other seasons, makes up a sizable portion of this area. The Rann is well-known for its marshy salt flats, which turn snow-white each season when the season's shallow water evaporates. Almost all of the traditional villages' income comes from salt farming.

The Rann of Kutch's outer ring, the environmentally significant Banni grasslands with their seasonal marshy wetlands, are another famous feature of the Kutch district. The tropical grassland there is Asia's biggest. Pastoralists who raise the Banni Buffalo, Kankrej cows, sheep, goats, horses, and camels live in Banni. Across an effort to halt "desertification" and "salinity ingress," the Forest Department planted Prosopis juliflora in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the early 1960s. Prosopis has grown across natural grassland and desert over the past 50 years, resulting in the extinction of species used as fodder.

The rivers that drained into the Banni were dammed in the 1960s. The rivers used to naturally drain out the salt, but when the water flow was stopped, the saline incursion from the nearby Arabian Sea increased. 1500 square kilometres, or 50%, of the Banni are now very salty. To safeguard their fodder basis, various institutions and organisations are collaborating with local pastoralists.

Deccan plateau

The Deccan Plateau is India's largest biogeographic region, including semi-arid grasslands and dry thorn forests. Some regions have low hills. Wide grasslands and river plains previously covered the area. Annual rainfall is 50-70cm, making it drought-prone. Krishna, Kaveri, and Godavari flowed through the region to compensate. They maintained the water table and watered rice crops. Chalukya and Vijayanagara ruled the Deccan plateau. Badami, Hospet, and Hampi in Karnataka are UNESCO world heritage sites with distinctive architectural styles. Large-scale damming of several rivers in the West has led to progressive drying. Extensive usage of groundwater was seen as a solution, but it's now scarce. Forced irrigation replaced Jowar and Bajra with sugarcane and tobacco. Dhangars and Kurubas are sheep herders. They travelled through barren grasslands, forming friendships with local farmers. This area had several nomadic and semi-nomadic communities. The Pardhis were noted for their hunting skills and grassland animal knowledge. Malhotra et al. (1983) documented hunting's relevance for three nomadic cultures. They showed how their different hunting preferences lessen conflicts and allow them to coexist. Vaidus, Vadars, Kaikadis, Nandiwallahs, and Lammans supplied services to settled village communities in the past. Many factors threaten these populations' traditional vocations. Vadars and Kaikadis have been supplanted by machines. Vaidus, or travelling medicine men, are being replaced by contemporary doctors. Most nomads in this region are attempting to settle down and get government aid.

The Gangetic Plains

Ganga and Brahmaputra's alluvial belt is India's most productive farmland. Ancient dynasties Magadha, Mauryas, and Guptas governed this region because of its fertile terrain, dense woods, and vast rivers. Tharu is a large Terai tribe. They weave bamboo and grass into baskets, hats, fans, and other objects. Santhals and Mundas were also great artists, dancers, and singers. Both are major tribes with well-known violent revolts against the British. They rebelled against government logging. They used bows and arrows against the British soldiers. The rebellions were suppressed, but their stories continue to inspire today's generations. Birsa Munda, who died in police detention, was fearless and attached to his forest land and ancestral home. He represents tribal resistance to persecution. Jharkhand formed a separate state due to tribal claims and pressures. Assam's paddy-areca plains are formed by Brahmputra's floodplains. This region has Stone Age settlements. Ahom governed Assam most recently. Ahoms had close political ties with Myanmar. Fertile land and fish-rich water support big populations. First in Britain, later in Assam, tea plantations were tried experimentally. Today, it exports aromatic tea. Tea plantations have fragmented woodlands. Many tribes worked in tea gardens. Poorness persists. The region's oil and gas reserves led to the building of refineries. For many years, India's north-east was isolated from the rest of the country, allowing it to keep most of its traditional cultures. Isolation led to exploitation and underdevelopment, though.

India's plains and mountains are home to many flora, animals, and people. The landscape is a social-ecological-political matrix created over millennia. Only when we comprehend the interconnections between cultural and environmental diversity can we save India's biodiversity.

India's environment and culture - Part -1

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