Gender and Sex in the field of social work

The themes of gender, sex, culture, patriarchy, and power are introduced in this post. It continues by providing a brief explanation of intersectionality and how it may be utilised to account for gender inequities for varied women, particularly those belonging to marginalised groups. At the end of this post the reader will be able to

Recognize the complexity of the gender idea and how it influences society behaviour.
Recognize the ways that patriarchy affects society and gives men advantages and authority over women.
Be able to apply conceptual frameworks to analyse how gender specificities and their intersectionalities affect how some women and men experience marginalisation in particular ways.
Gain proficiency in applying gendered principles to social work practise.

Introduction

The Evolution of Gender

Gender Expression
Gender Roles
Socialisation of Gender
Culture and Gender: The Connections

Patriarchy, Power and Gender

Role of Institutional Patriarchy and Power in Shaping Gender Relations

Summary

Introduction

In the practise of feminist social work, gender as a category of analysis for social interactions plays a significant role. When working with people, it is important to remember that power structures and hierarchies based on gender, caste, race, disability, region, and religion are inherent in gendered identities and relationships. Sex is what is considered to be "natural" and biological, but gender is considered to be "cultural," which includes the ways in which various communities' and cultures' cultural norms influence and socialise men's and women's behaviours, attitudes, and access to resources. However, this binary of men and women is a moving target and may not apply to everyone in a given country or community.

The inequalities that result from the gendered transactions that people engage in based on their location within households, communities, and formal (such as panchayats, municipal corporations, bureaucracy, political organisations, NGOs, etc.) and informal institutions must be understood and kept in mind when working on issues as social workers (e.g., cultural groups, social groups). On the basis of biological determinism, wherein a woman's "nurturing" role is frequently praised as a "positive characteristic," inequalities are also justified, and care work continues to be the gendered sphere of employment for "women." However, this job is not considered important and is largely viewed as "private" within the context of the home. Devaluing the labour that women do in the home leads to disparities because women must prioritise this work above whatever work they may conduct outside the home when making decisions. Inequalities for women are thus greatly influenced by biological determinism, which also contributes to conditions of structural oppression.

The Evolution of Gender

Through cultural conventions and practise, certain traits and behaviours of people are classified as masculine and feminine. When a kid is born, efforts are frequently made to gently and occasionally by punitive measures push toward what is accepted "male" or "female" behaviour. However, sex and gender have unique characteristics that must be recognised. Sex is the physical/anatomical structure that is connected to a person's physical reproductive system and used to determine sex when a child is born. The biological sex consists of internal and external genitalia, chromosomes (XX for assigned females and XY for assigned men), and hormones (estrogen/progesterone for assigned females and testosterone for assigned males) (vulva, clitoris, vagina for assigned females, penis and testicles for assigned males). Biological sex must be viewed as a spectrum or range of possibilities rather than a binary set of two options given the potential diversity in all of these. The development of gender identity is not a neutral process, because institutional structures in society as well as local cultural practises, religious texts, myths, and narratives, as well as discipline and punishment, have an impact on how people are socialised. Thus, a person's natural, psychological identification as a man or a woman is referred to as their gender identity. This identity may or may not match their physiology or the sex they were assigned at birth. People become aware of this between the ages of 18 months and three years. Most people grow into their biological sex's gender identification. However, for other people, their gender identity is distinct from their assigned or biological sex. Some of these people decide to change their physical appearance to more closely match their gender identity through social, hormonal, and/or surgical means.

Gender Expression

Gender expression describes the methods by which people make their gender identity known to others by their conduct, attire, hairstyle, voice, and other physical manifestations. People also assign gender to others based on their look, mannerisms, and other gender-specific traits, which is another way that gender expression operates. Sometimes, transgender people prefer to express themselves physically in accordance with their gender identification than with the sex they were assigned at birth. Sexual orientation should not be inferred from gender expression.

Gender Roles

In this article, we'll look at gender from the perspectives of men and women. Therefore, gender roles are the tasks, standards, and conduct that society assigns to males and females. In our culture, there are two basic gender roles: masculine (characterised by traits associated with men) and feminine (having the qualities attributed to females). The gender roles that will be discussed in this module pertain to the following socially taught behaviours and expectations that are connected with the two sexes:

Set by culture and society
Changes through time and history
Attributes and designations may change depending on the place and the culture

The shift towards using ‘gender’ as a category of analysis to locate and understand women’s inequality in given societies was first initiated by writers like Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975). They brought in the context of social relationships rather than only the biological differences among women and men that shaped these inequalities. The analysis brought out the fact that culture and societal norms frame the ways in which women are systematically subordinated as ‘women’ as against ‘men”. More and more writers became concerned with issues relating to women in developing countries and the manner in which gender and concomitant relationships were socially constructed. The focus on gender rather than women makes it critical to look not only at the category ‘women’—since that is only half the story—but at women in relation to men, and the way in which relations between these categories are socially constructed. Men and women play different roles in society with their gender differences shaped by ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, economic and cultural determinants (Whitehead 1979). These roles show similarities and differences between other social categories such as class, ‘race’, ethnicity and so on. Since the way they are socially constructed is always temporally and spatially specific, gender divisions cannot be read off on checklists. Social categories, therefore, differentiate the experience of inequality and subordination within societies (Moser, C 1993).

Socialisation of Gender

Gender is created and recreated via social interactions and everyday living. The sociocultural concept of gender refers to how civilizations categorise and assign social roles to men and women (Bhasin 2000). Gender is a social construct determined by social expectations and not a biological trait that is present from birth. In order to demonstrate their masculinity and femininity, society expects men and women to act, dress, and behave in specific ways. However, every culture has a unique method of valuing females and boys and giving them a variety of duties, reactions, and characteristics. "Gendering" refers to all social and cultural "packing" done for girls and boys beginning at birth (Bhasin 2000). Given that gender is a system of classification that is socially constructed and assigns people traits of masculinity and femininity. Gender characteristics vary among cultures and can alter over time. Sex and gender are sometimes used interchangeably, but this is incorrect because sex refers to physical and biological traits while gender relates to social and emotional traits. Through conventions, laws, and culture, men and women are given different roles and obligations in their particular societal contexts. Similar to how the roles of men as breadwinners and women as housewives are associated with the division of labour between men and women. Men are known for having aggressive traits, whereas women are considered to be meek, nurturing, and compassionate. At the expense of their fundamental human rights, it amounts to the exploitation, subjection, and marginalisation of one gender. Additionally, gender dictates how men, women, boys, and girls are expected to interact with one another. It has a significant role in determining who makes decisions, who possesses what, and, most crucially, who has power (UNICEF 2011).

Our society needs to treat both genders equally and create a supportive socioeconomic climate where each can freely contribute in their own unique ways. If a girl likes to wear clothing that has been culturally hijacked by boys and is reprimanded or, in the worst case scenario, subjected to violence, this situation becomes much more problematic. Similar to how girls are reprimanded, punished, and urged in various ways to follow the'masculine', males who prefer to dress, speak, and behave in a 'feminine' manner as perceived and interpreted by culture are reprimanded, too.

Culture and Gender: The Connections

Specific cultures and normative rules impact gender roles, concepts, stereotypes, as well as inequities. What makes culture distinct for the particular civilization in which it exists? According to Schech and Haggis (2000), culture is:

Cultivation of land, crops and animals
Cultivation of mind, arts, civilization
Ways of life, meanings and values
Ways of life structured by representations and power

This conceptualization of culture and how it affects gender roles is helpful. Religion, as a component of culture, is important in determining gender roles. "Culture has been defined in a hierarchical sense as cultivation of intellect, arts, and civilization, with only the elites seen as truly cultured," claims Jolly (2002). For instance, the Sanskrit culture of the upper castes in India is frequently regarded as superior and something to strive for. People with education are considered to be "better quality" and to "have culture" in modern-day China. The top class British are seen as the most cultured people in the British colonial legacy, whereas other classes and nations are perceived as less civilised. The values of development ideology have been impacted, especially, by this British tradition. In the past and to some extent still now in Britain, the lifestyle of people in positions of economic and political authority was regarded as cultured, while the occupations and social practises of the working class were seen as uncultured. Women from various communities in particular societies experience gender differently within this cultural environment. Gendered understandings define and impose certain accepted concepts and standards, including:

Dress

In most countries, women and men dress differently from girls and boys. This discrepancy may be slight in some regions or significant in others. Women are required to cover their entire bodies, including their faces, in some societies. The way a person is dressed can and does have an impact on their mobility, sense of freedom, and sense of dignity. Dress is frequently utilised to define behaviours in women and to link such behaviours to the izzat, or family honour.

Attributes

In most societies women are expected to have and perfect qualities such as gentleness, caring, nurturing and obedience; men are expected to be strong, self-confident, competitive and rational. Vasanth Kannabiran, an Indian feminist, once said in a gender training,

"Rearing of children is supposed to be as natural, as inherent to a woman as giving birth to children. . . And it is not just in relation to the children we produce; it is assumed that love or motherhood is sitting in me waiting to flow out like a stream to anybody who needs it. We become eternal mothers. So I mother my child, other people's children, my husband, my brothers, my sisters, my father who actually calls me 'my little mother'! To everyone I become a mother by extension. You are expected to overflow with a motherly feeling towards the entire universe. And this is supposed to be natural! Not work at all. It is something you do as easily as breathing, eating or sleeping."

Division of Labour

Production of goods was moved into factory spaces and integrated into the "public" sphere, which was dominated by men (Tong R, 2009, pp118). Women's domestic labour was reduced in importance, hidden, and appreciated by being moved to the "private" sphere. The majority of the production took place within the household, and every member contributed. We were all "breadwinners." Both reproduction and manufacture took place in the home. Men and women worked together and were complementary to one another. Due to their necessity for survival, women's abilities to reproduce the next generation as well as their skills and knowledge were highly respected. A hierarchy between the two resulted from their separation. The home or private sphere gradually lost all economic, political, and historical significance. People who do not participate in it have no economic value, and that which does not enter the market is not regarded as "labour." Women lost their importance and value since they continued to live in economically backward households. The importance of men's job increased, as did the disparities between men and women and the power of patriarchy (Bhasin 2000). Households changed from being gynocentric to becoming androcentric (man centred) and androcratic (male-ruled). The fundamental principles that guide both private and public life have also been highly disputed, bordering on being in conflict. While love, care, selflessness, and understanding are valued in the private sphere, competition, ambition, violence, and individualism are necessary for and valued in the public realm. At home, away from the brutality of the market, women are expected to provide a safe haven for men.

Intersectionalities and Gender

In order to explore, analyse, and interact with women within marginalised communities/groups, intersectionality is primarily a black feminist idea that has been broadened by others, such as Dalit feminists. (Hooks, Kimberle Crenshaw, and others) The intersection of gender with other identities, such as those based on race, caste, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc., and/or other hurdles, such as poverty or living in a rural area, creates several barriers for people, which marginalises women. Gender, race, ethnicity, caste, poverty, and other identities are all referred to as "axis" identities. This axis is also referred to as "multiple" discrimination and "compound" prejudice. These socioeconomic and cultural divisions are what give rise to gender identities that are specifically substantively different and frequently a combination of multiple of these factors. The goal of an intersectional analysis of gender relations is to identify and address the ways that racism, casteism, patriarchy, class oppression, heteronormativity, religious fundamentalism, and other forms of discrimination produce disparities that shape the relative situations of women.

Patriarchy, Power and Gender

Both a social structure and an ideology or belief system that promotes the idea that men are superior exist under patriarchy. Religions have also contributed significantly to the development and maintenance of patriarchal ideology. Through myths such as Eve was formed from Adam's rib or that man was created in the likeness of God, they have propagated ideas of male superiority.

Today, patriarchal ideologies are pushed by the media and even educational institutions by portraying males as more powerful in positions of decision-making and women as compulsive consumers, dependant, and envious. In most countries, patriarchy works hand in hand with culture to maintain the authority of the rich and powerful. The predominance of masculine privilege is a product of culture, which manifests itself in various ways. Once privileged, laws and norms confer authority on a select group of men who belong to the elite and powerful. These individuals are then strengthened by a complex hierarchical system of formal and informal processes. These power dynamics are still in place, and cultural representations and behaviours only serve to perpetuate them. For instance, caste has persisted as a very strong social category in Indian society. As long as members of these castes continue to benefit from social institutions and upper caste privileges, it is maintained through endogamy and marriage. These women may experience many types of inequality at home, in the private sphere, and in the public sphere, but they may also discriminate against and abuse their authority against men from lower castes.

Role of Institutional Patriarchy and Power in Shaping Gender Relations

Measuring gender discrimination in social institutions highlights how "culture" or social relationships may either limit or promote individual or group agency. Institutions are "the humanly constructed restrictions that regulate political, economic, and social interaction," according to Douglas C. North (1990). Both formal norms (constitutions, laws, and property rights) and informal restraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and standards of conduct) make up these frameworks. Different forms of legal systems, such as civil or common law, customary law, and religious laws, allow for the coexistence of formal and informal rules. The social component of institutions is how they impact social interactions and the choices, actions, and behaviours of people, communities, and organisations, establishing what is regarded as acceptable or unacceptable in a community. Therefore, social institutions are crucial in establishing and influencing gender roles, relationships, and power. They decide if women have the chance to carve out their own route to empowerment. Social institutions function and have an impact on society at the micro, meso, and macro levels (Kabeer 1994). For instance, social institutions pertaining to women's status in the family manifest at a household (micro) level in behaviours and attitudes, such as unequal financial decision-making power between men and women; at a community (meso) level in specific beliefs or sanctioned practises, such as discrimination against widows; and at a country (macro) level in terms of broader social norms or laws that allow discrimination, such as discriminatory inheritance laws. The entire female life cycle is impacted by gender discrimination in social institutions, such as when daughters are viewed as less valuable socially than sons, when women are prohibited from owning land, or when widows are given fewer inheritance rights.

Some Gender Terms

Gyne = Greek for woman
Andros = Greek for man
Gynecology = Science of psychological functions and diseases of women
Gynocentric = Woman-centred
Androcentric = Man-centred
Gynarchy = government by females
Gynocracy = women's rule
Androcracy = men's rule
Gynelatory = worship of women
Gynocide = killing of women
Gynophobia = aversion to or fear of women
Androgyny = presence of male and female characteristics in the same person

Source: Bhasin (2000)

Summary

The various aspects of gender are discussed in this post, with an emphasis on how it differs from biological distinctions while yet being influenced by them. Discussions on gender roles, culture, intersectionality, and institutions all centre on the intricate web of factors that combine to produce disparities between men and women. As a starting point for comprehending the course on gender and social work, it is crucial to remember these fundamental ideas.