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Introduction to Criminal Justice Social Work

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  1. Introduction
  2. Introduction to the Criminal Justice System
  3. Historical sketch of social workers in the CJS

 Introduction

Every year, the number of people who are impacted by crime increases as a society. Crime rates are rising gradually (Crime in India, 2015). Both directly and indirectly, crime has an impact on people. Every year, the government releases a study titled "Crime in India" that offers us a good sense of the number of people who are directly impacted by crime, both as accusers and victims. These reports can be obtained at http://ncrb.nic.in/, the website of the National Crimes Record Bureau (NCRB). Additionally, because we regularly watch news broadcasts about crimes, we are also indirectly impacted by crime in our society. These include our response to acts of terrorism or the fury our society felt after a woman was raped in a bus in Delhi in December 2012. The most recent crime statistics for India are those for 2015.

A total of 73,26,099 cognizable offences, including 29,49,400 offences under the Indian Penal Code (I.P.C.) and 43,76,699 crimes under special and local laws (SLL), were reported, representing a 1.3% increase over 2014. (72,29,193 cases). A total of 1,68,25,687 complaints—written, verbal, and from different human rights organizations—were received. In addition, the police registered 42,32,199 non-cognizable complaints. This demonstrates that not all complaints necessarily result in the registration of a cognizable offence and that not all complaints necessitate a legal response from the police. In 2015, 1,30,195 cases of sexual offenses—including rape, attempted rape, attack on a woman with the aim to violate her modesty, and insult to women's modesty—were reported. Of these, assault on a woman with the intent to violate her modesty accounted for 63.3% of all such offences (82,422 cases). In the last five years, the percentage of I.P.C. offences perpetrated against women as a percentage of all I.P.C. offences climbed from 9.4% in 2011 to 11.1% in 2015. In 2015, 94,172 cases of crimes against minors were reported in the nation, up from 89,423 cases in 2014. This represents a 5.3% increase from 2014 to 2015. 6,877 cases of human trafficking were reported in 2015 versus 5,466 cases in 2014, representing a 25.8% rise. In total, 3,490 instances of child trafficking were reported in the nation in 2015, including cases under the Immoral Traffic(P) Act, section 372 I.P.C., section 373 I.P.C., and section 366B I.P.C., which deals with the purchase of minors for prostitution and section 366A I.P.C., which deals with the procurement of minor girls. In 2015 compared to 2014, there were 45,003 reported cases of crimes against people from Scheduled Castes, a 4.4% drop (from 47,064 occurrences in 2014). The total number of cases filed under the I.P.C. and SLL against juveniles declined from 33,526 in 2014 to 31,396 in 2015, a 6.4% decrease, and from 5,039 in 2014 to 2,037 in 2015, a 59.6% decrease. Crimes against senior adults were reported to have increased in 2015 compared to 2014 by 9.7% (from 18,714 incidents to 20,532 cases).

These are just the cases that have been documented, thus they could be limited. Therefore, in addition to keeping track of crime statistics, many nations also perform annual victimisation surveys. In these polls, samples of people are directly questioned about their experiences as crime victims.

"A practice-based profession and academic field that fosters social change and development, social cohesiveness, and the empowerment and emancipation of people," according to the definition of social work. Social work is fundamentally based on the values of social justice, human rights, group responsibility, and respect for individual differences. Social work engages people and structures to address life's challenges and improve wellbeing, according to social work theories, social science, humanities, and indigenous knowledge that were approved by the general meetings of the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) in July 2014.

With this concept in mind, social workers naturally fit within the criminal justice system (CJS), which is primarily concerned with ensuring a fair criminal trial. Destitute and homeless people who are arrested under beggary laws, young people from marginalised backgrounds who wind up in jails, women and children who are both offenders and victims, people who have been rescued from commercial sexual exploitation, and children in need of care and protection who require both a legal and sociopsychological response all come into contact with the criminal justice system. These can be outside the scope of the police's expertise and training. When members of marginalised communities interact with the CJS, social workers are crucial in protecting their rights and rehabilitation. Social workers can have a legitimate function in the correctional system by putting an emphasis on rehabilitation and social reintegration.

 Introduction to the Criminal Justice System

Our society has always included some kind of legal framework and means of crime control. But following the uprising of 1857, the CJS as it exists now began to take shape. The underpinnings of our current legal system were established when the British Crown took control of India. Following this came the Government of India Act, the Indian Penal Code, the Criminal Procedure Code, and the Indian Evidence Act. The institutions covered by the CJS fall under the State list, which is defined under Article 246 as the division of powers between the Central and State Governments. The I.P.C. lays down the substantive law, as in what the crimes are and the punishments. The IEA gives down the regulations controlling the admissibility of evidence during a trial, while the Cr.P.C. specifies the process to be followed by the CJS. Criminal law distinguishes between cognizable and non-cognizable offence types. When a police is cognizable, the police are able to conduct direct investigations and make arrests without a warrant. When a crime is not cognizable, a warrant is required before an arrest can be made. For crimes that are punishable by a fine, a First Information Report (FIR) is submitted, and for crimes that are not, a Non-Cognizable Report (NCR).

The CJS is the government agency in charge of assisting victims of crime. It consists of police, courts, prisons, and additional after-care organisations. The adversarial system is the one that we use in India. In accordance with this system, magistrates or judges hear the prosecution's and the defense's arguments for the case and render a decision based on the evidence offered by both sides. The prosecution must provide evidence that disproves all reasonable doubt. The inquisitorial system, where the judge participates more actively in the investigation and the trial, is another system that is used in some other countries.

The Police

The CJS's Police are in charge of upholding the law. The police are in charge of maintaining law and order, but their job description also includes handling domestic conflicts and other service-related tasks. They have to deal with victims, domestic problems, elderly people, and children who need care and protection in addition to dealing with offenders. Due to their availability around-the-clock, they frequently serve as the first point of contact for a variety of problems that individuals encounter. After crimes are committed, they look into them. Police are collaborating with the community to implement community policing in an effort to reduce crime.

Every state police have the following hierarchy

  1. Director General of Police (DGP) 
  2. Additional Director General of Police (Addl. DGP) 
  3. Inspector General of Police (IGP) 
  4. Deputy Inspector General of Police (Dy. IGP) 
  5. Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP) 
  6. Superintendent of Police (SP) 
  7. Additional Superintendent of Police (Addl. SP)
  8. Assistant/ Deputy Superintendent of Police (ASP/Dy. SP) 
  9.  Inspector of Police 
  10. Sub-Inspector of Police (SI) 
  11. Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police (ASI) 
  12. Head Constable (HC) 
  13. Police Constable (PC) 
Officer ranks with serial numbers 1 through 8 are mostly those of the Indian Police Service (IPS). Some may also be from the state police service, such as those with serial numbers 6 through 8. The serial numbers 9 through 13 represent lower ranks. They are again split into two categories in some states. Lower subordinates are the constabulary (Head Constables and Constables), while ASIs to Inspectors are referred to as upper subordinates. Districts are the territorial divisions of states used for administrative purposes. The district police force is led by a Superintendent of Police (SP). A Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP) may be assigned as the commander of the district police force in some significant or big districts. A range is a collection of districts that fall under the supervision of a Deputy Inspector General of Police. Inspector General of Police (IGP) positions oversee police departments in several states. IGPs often oversee police zones that each have two or more ranges. Subdivisions are used to partition a district. Officers with the rank of assistant superintendent of police or deputy superintendent of police are responsible for a subdivision. Depending on the geography, population, and level of crime in each sub-division, there are various police stations. In several states, there are police circles that sit between the police station and the subdivision, with an inspector of police often in charge of each circle. Police Circles are used in several states in place of police subdivisions (CHRI, 2015).

The Commissioner of Police and Joint Commissioner of Police are in charge of cities that use the commissionerate system. Additionally, there might be commissioners. They are followed by a group of Deputy Commissioners of Police, Assistant Commissioners of Police, Police Inspectors, and the rest are the same as those already mentioned.

In addition to this, there are departments that specialise in investigations, such as the CID. There are a number of central police institutions as well, including the Criminal Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the National Police Academy, the Bureau of Police Research and Development, and the National Crime Records Bureau, which compiles crime data.

The Courts

The criminal case trial is handled by the courts. The pre-trial procedure must be conducted in accordance with the Cr.P.C., and it is the courts' duty to make sure that neither the accused nor the victims are denied any rights guaranteed by the Constitution. Detention, bail, and the police or the court recording the statements of the accused and the victims all fall under this category. The victim is represented by the prosecution throughout the proceedings, and the offender is represented by a defence attorney. The prosecutor is the State-appointed attorney since the State manages the case on behalf of the victim.
The structure of the court system in India is as follows, 
  • Supreme Court of India (the Apex Court) 
  • High Court (highest court at the state level) 
  • Sessions/District courts
  • Judicial Magistrates of the First Class/Metropolitan Magistrates
  • Judicial Magistrates of the second class 
  • Executive Magistrates
The Supreme Court has jurisdiction in original cases, appeals, and advisory matters. Any dispute between the Government of India and one or more States, between the Government of India and any state or states on one side and one or more states on the other, or between two or more states is subject to its exclusive original jurisdiction. Additionally, it has original jurisdiction over cases that are presented directly before it, such as Write Petitions and Public Interest Litigations. The ability of a court to hear a case initially is known as original jurisdiction. A higher court's ability to hear an appeal based on a lower court's decision is known as appellate jurisdiction. Therefore, unlike the others, High Courts and District Courts also have original and appellate jurisdiction.

The Corrections and other services

India has a number of jails and other institutions established under the JJ Act that fall within the correctional systems. There are Central Jails where prisoners serving primarily longer terms are kept. Most undertrials are housed in district jails and sub-jails. Our prison population is largely made up of undertrials (67.2%, according to Prison Statistics India, 2015). Some locations have women-only jails, or a district jail might have a special area just for female inmates. There are Borstal Schools in some states of India that house young offenders. According to Prison Statistics, 2015, 17 States in India have open prisons that allow inmates a little greater freedom of movement, have minimal security, and engage them in agricultural work. For young people who have broken the law and are convicted, there are specific homes within the juvenile justice system. Undertrials are housed in monitoring facilities. Children in need of care and protection are housed in shelter houses and children's homes. These children may be discovered on the streets, saved from any abusive position such as forced labour, prostitution, or a brothel, children who went missing but were later recovered, provided with temporary housing while their relatives are located, etc.

In addition to this, there are short-term residences for women who may be abused or the victims of domestic violence and require a place to stay. Women rescued from prostitution reside in protective homes established under the Immoral (Traffic Prevention) Act.

Finally, there are Beggars' Homes to accommodate people detained under state-legislated anti-begging legislation. According to these rules, those who are seen panhandling, hawking, selling their goods, performing on the street, as well as elderly, disabled, and other vulnerable individuals, may be pulled up by the police and imprisoned in beggars' homes for up to ten years in situations of repeated offences.

In all of the shelters, there are various options for vocational training for the inmates. The Prisons Act of 1894 (as revised in 1957), Rules for Treatment of Prisoners (1955), and Jail Manuals govern the operation of prisons. Regarding the other institutions, their operations are governed by the respective laws that gave rise to them. There are rules governing an inmate's living quarters, rights and responsibilities, communication with the outside world, access to meals and books, medical care, and other things. The inmates in all of these institutions receive services from various non-governmental organisations. Short-stay homes, protective homes, and institutions for children in need of care and protection are frequently run by private groups. Social workers have found a position in all of these to offer a range of services, including counselling, serving as probation officers, conducting house inspections, and giving vocational training through organisations. Additionally, social workers have a seat in ITPA advisory panels.

Human Rights and The Criminal Justice Process

Human Rights

Our Constitution serves as the foundation for the CJS's guiding principles and the functions of the various institutions. India has also ratified a number of international treaties, which has an impact on our laws and policies. The entire process that takes place once a crime is committed is regulated by the Code of Criminal Procedure (Cr.P.C.). Under addition to this, decisions made by the Supreme Court and the High Courts in a Common Law system also serve as precedents for cases to come. We'll take a quick look at each of these. The other documents mostly discuss the rights of the parties who interact with the CJS—the accused and the victim—while the Cr.P.C. statutes slow down the procedure.

The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the foundational international agreement. Despite being a declaration of human rights in general, it contains articles on the rights of individuals inside the CJS, such as Article 7 regarding equal protection under the law or Article 9, which safeguards all individuals from arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile. The presumption of innocence until proven guilty is covered by Article 11. Rights to life, freedom, and equality are all recognised in the Constitution as well as in all other human rights documents. Another similar agreement is the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, to which India acceded on April 10, 1979. No person should be the subject of arbitrary arrest and detention, which is a clause in Article 9 that talks about a person's right to liberty and security. It is acknowledged that the legal processes can be used to deny such a privilege. There are therefore some procedural guarantees. An arrested individual must be told of the grounds for their arrest, their appearance before a judge, their right to a speedy trial, or they must be released (again conditional). The legality of such a technique is a matter for a court to decide. According to Article 14, everyone has a right to a fair and public hearing before a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal that is constituted by the law. It also stipulates that everyone must be treated equally before courts and tribunals. The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, adopted in 1966; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted in 1979; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966; and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1966, are a few additional important international treaties and articles that could be mentioned here. Some types of violations, such as slavery, forced labour, and human trafficking, also fall under the purview of the state. Abolition of Forced Labor Convention (ILO No. 105), 1959, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment and Punishment (1984), and Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) are some of the agreements that are linked (Palermo Convention).

The criminal justice system must adhere to specific norms. These include the Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (1955), and the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules) (1985). (1985). Closer to home, Part III of the Indian Constitution is where we all get our Fundamental Rights. The Constitution serves as the basis for the tasks and responsibilities of every government institution in the nation. According to Article 13, laws that violate or interfere with basic rights are invalid. Every citizen is treated equally under the law under Article 14. Protection from conviction for crimes is provided by Article 20. According to this article, the punishment cannot be more severe than the offence for which it was intended under the law. It safeguards against someone being found guilty of the same crime twice and states that the accused cannot be made to testify against themselves. Article 21 safeguards both life and individual freedom. This is related to the discussion we have later in this section regarding arrests, bail, legal aid, penalties, custody, fair trials, and swift trials. Similar to Article 9 of the ICCPR is Article 22. It addresses topics including receiving notification of an arrest and bringing an apprehended individual before a magistrate within 24 hours. Additionally, it addresses the topic of longer-term preventative detention. The protective detention of children rescued from child labour, children of prostitutes, and women rescued from trafficking are additional topics covered by these Articles (Articles 23 and 24). The Article 39A-Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid-under the Directive Principles of State Policy is significant.

The Criminal Justice Process

The Code of Criminal Procedure (Cr.P.C.) establishes a step-by-step procedure for the criminal justice system to follow based on these fundamental human rights principles. The Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.P.C.) outlines the duties and authority of the police, prosecution, and courts. The CJS is set in action when a crime is committed. The police begin by filing an NCR or FIR, after which an investigation is launched, statements are taken down, evidence is gathered, and arrests are made.

Arres

The arrest of a person is the subject of Chapter V. The fundamental tenet in this situation is that the arrest must be legally warranted. Here, procedures are outlined for everything from arrest with and without warrants to searches and seizures to medical exams. Only when it is essential should a police officer make an arrest. The arrested person's friend or family member must be informed of the arrest. An advocate is allowed for anyone who has been arrested. In accordance with Section 76, a person who has been arrested must appear before the court immediately and without delay within 24 hours. The magistrate who the arrested person is brought before must determine for themselves if the proper procedure was followed. A person who has been arrested must also undergo medical testing every 48 hours. Laws against torture are forbidden, and the I.P.C. contains clauses that penalise such behaviour. Police preventive action is the subject of Chapter XI. Preventive detention is permitted under Article 22 of the Constitution in order to stop the conduct of a cognizable offence. But in this situation, a person cannot be held for longer than 24 hours without additional detention being authorised. In addition to the Cr.P.C., the Hon'ble Supreme Court established 11 rules in D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal (AIR 1997 SC 610) that must be followed when making an arrest. For the benefit of those who have been arrested, these rules must also be posted at the entrance to every police station. The recommendations state things like the need for the arresting police officer to wear name tags and clearly visible identification, as well as other things that are comparable to Cr.P.C. regulations.

Bail

When bail is rejected, personal freedom is taken away. In Hussainara Khatoon and Others v. Home Secretary, State of Bihar (AIR 1979 SC 1360, 1979 SCR (3) 169), the Supreme Court mandated that bail be granted on a personal bond if the court was persuaded based on the evidence presented that the accused had ties to the community and was not likely to flee. The accused may, to the greatest extent feasible, be released on his personal bond, the court said, "if the court is satisfied on a study of the relevant elements that the accused has his ties in the community and there is no considerable risk of non-appearance." In the Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Code, 2005, section 436 (1) was amended to provide that if a person accused of an offence other than a nonbailable offence appears or is produced before an officer in charge of a police station or the court, is indigent and unable to provide surety, such officer or court shall, instead of taking bail, discharge the person on his or her execution of a bond without sureties for his or her appearance before the court, is indigent and is Additionally, Section 436A was added, which states that a person who has been arrested and has been held during the course of the investigation, inquiry, or trial for a period longer than one-half the maximum sentence allowed under the law for that offence must be released by the court on his or her personal bond, with or without sureties.

Legal Aid

Free legal representation is guaranteed by the State under Article 39A of the Constitution. The Legal Services Authorities Act, which was passed by the Parliament in 1987 and entered into force on November 9, 1995, was created for this purpose in order to create a national standard network for delivering free and competent legal services to the poorer segments of society. In accordance with the Legal Services Authorities Act of 1987, the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) was established to offer free legal services to the less fortunate members of society. There are also legal services authorities in every state and district in the nation. Anyone incarcerated in a facility has access to legal aid services. So even women who have been freed from trafficking can seek legal assistance.

Trial

Once the investigation is complete and a chargesheet has been filed by the police, the trial can commence. A chargesheet must include a list of witnesses, supporting documentation, expert testimony, and statements. The chargesheet must be filed within 60 or 90 days, depending on the crime. Additionally, depending on the offence, the Sessions/District Courts or the Judicial Magistrate/Metropolitan Magistrate's Courts will hear the case first. For specific offences, there are fast track or special courts that might hear a case every day before rendering a decision.

When presenting the evidence and questioning witnesses, the prosecutor stands in the victim's place. It must be established beyond a reasonable doubt that the accused is guilty. Once the prosecution has finished, the defence is free to cross-examine witnesses and offer their own evidence. Final arguments are made after this, and a verdict of guilt or acquittal is then rendered. The ultimate punishment is then imposed when the sentencing discussions have concluded.

Either side may appeal the decision to a higher court if they are not happy with it. In every case, the Supreme Court serves as the final appellate court. When necessary, such as in situations of sexual assault, there are provisions for closed-door proceedings. Only the two parties' attorneys and the bare minimum of court officials are present during these hearings.

In case of a conviction the accused is taken under custody and placed in a correction institution. In case of an acquittal the accused is set free if not already on bail.

Victim compensation

In cases of conviction, the magistrate may issue an order at the conclusion of the trial specifying the fine amount to be paid to the victim as compensation (Section 357 of Cr.P.C.). In 2009, Section 357A was added to create a victim compensation plan. Sections 357 B and C, which deal with financial compensation in situations of sexual assault and free medical care, were also added in 2013. Many States and Union Territories have since developed their own victim compensation plans as a result.

Historical sketch of social workers in the CJS

It happens frequently that recommendations for heavy sentences are made in response to media depictions of violent crimes, which represent a very small portion of all reported crimes. In fact, because the former did not work, the prison system evolved through time from brutal corporal punishment to more humanitarian treatment of convicts. According to Roberts and Brownell (1999), "many modern politicians and citizens are unaware that the retribution-, punishment-, and confinement-oriented policies of the 1800s did not work but instead resulted in inmate violence and offenders who, upon release from incarceration, were far more violent and hateful than they were before confinement." An inmate who is treated like a wild animal will probably develop into a dangerous predator. However, if a convicted person is given opportunities for education, vocational training in a marketable skill, social skills training, confrontational group therapy, and substance abuse treatment, then there is a viable opportunity for them to seek a lawabiding lifestyle, particularly if they are young and have not been corrupted by habitual convicted felons (in maximum-security institutions) and sadistic guards’ (pp. 360). Social workers are able to function within the criminal justice system with this kind of understanding and in this kind of environment. Such a mentality led to the founding of the first juvenile courts in the US in Illinois in 1899 and the first organisation to aid abused women in 1885. (Roberts, 1996). Social workers were present in prisons and correctional facilities in the 1800s, according to Roberts and Brownell (1999). Early in the 20th century, policewomen started offering social work services in the police station (Roberts, 1976).

The history of social workers in the CJS in India is chronicled by Sethna in 1952. The Jails Committee 1919–1920 provided numerous proposals with a focus on reform and rehabilitation, including labour, the availability of libraries, and improved living circumstances in jails. The Bombay government announced its intention to hire trained personnel, psychologists, and psychiatrists in 1949. The goal was to create a sympathetic team ready to assist and motivated to help the prisoner change. Making prisoners perform a range of industrial tasks was another key component. The use of fetters and other physical punishments were also being abandoned. Soon after, a number of Convicts' Aid Societies were established to study the topic of after-care for prisoners after their release. For the same, probation officers were appointed (pp. 282- 287, 291-294).

Another area of the CJS where social workers or individuals from outside the traditional CJS have carved out a niche for themselves is juvenile justice. In Massachusetts, a state agent was appointed in 1869; he or she was replaced in 1878 by a probation officer. They were tasked with examining the circumstances leading up to the crime and given custody of the juvenile in an effort to reform them (Sethna, 1952, pp. 342).

Juveniles were instead transferred to reformatory schools after the Reformatory Schools Act was passed in 1897. In order to safeguard children and treat juveniles, various presidencies passed Children's Acts in the 1920s (Sethna, 1952, pp. 342-343).

The formation of Children's Aid Societies and homes was also made possible by these Acts. A female Stipendiary Magistrate with a PhD in Sociology and Psychology named Dr. Katayun Cama was appointed to the Juvenile Court in Bombay. The goal is to treat youngsters with compassion. Her court was held in a children's detention facility in each of Kurla, Bandra, and Umerkhadi. Probation Officers were a part of the setting and made queries of the children. We also took into account reports from psychologists and psychiatrists. The probation officer's report determined whether or not the child was returned to the parents (pp. 352-353). There were more after-care facilities to help with probationary release as probation officers made their way into the system. Many of these facilities were private, such as the Salvation Army's Home, David Sassoon Industrial School, Byramjee Jeejeebhoy Home, and for girls, the Shraddhanand Anath Mahila Ashram. A Bombay Probation and AfterCare Association was also present (pp. 359). The goal of the entire system was to reduce crime and recidivism.

In this area, Raghavan and Mishra (2017) chart the changes that have occurred since India's independence. Dr. Walter Reckless, an American criminologist and United Nations specialist on corrections, made a significant contribution to the development of Criminal Justice Social Work (CJSW) in India. Following his advice, the first six-month training programme for jail and correctional officials was conducted in TISS in 1952 with aid from MHA, GoI. Since the first five-year plan, the government has placed a priority on convicts' rehabilitation. Remand homes, Borstal Schools, and training facilities were built in the initial years following independence. The Central Bureau of Correctional Services, subsequently known as the National Institute of Social Defence, was an important institution constructed in 1961. (NISD). The Government of India established an Advisory Committee on Aftercare Programs in 1954 to enhance rehabilitation (pp.15).

The Committee expanded the eligibility for aftercare services to include everyone who may have spent time in a facility, not simply offenders. It suggested creating a district-level position for an after-care officer with trained social workers (pp.16). TISS made a significant contribution at the time and continues to do so. For government employees working in the field of corrections, a two-year master's degree training programme was established in 1952. This had a concentration in criminology and prison management (pp.16). Today, a number of institutions, including the National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundarnar University in Tirunelveli, Madras University, Karnatak University in Dharwad, Raksha Shakti University in Gujarat, and Sardar Patel University of Police, Security and Criminal Justice in Rajasthan, to name a few, offer master's level programmes in criminology and correctional administration. When it comes to the JJ System, the Children's Act was passed initially in 1960. In 1986, the Juvenile Justice Act was first enacted.

As child welfare officers or through NGOs, social workers have always found a way to contribute to the JJ system. According to Raghavan (2013, p. 266), the government's attention began to move toward increasing poverty in the 1970s and 1980s. According to the author, the administration seems to have lost faith in institutional rehabilitation and therapy as a means of promoting social integration. Less students were being sent to schools of higher learning, and fewer positions for social workers were being established in the CJS. At the same time, crime rates kept increasing. The civil society still has faith in the CJS's social workers today. Additionally, TISS keeps up fieldwork initiatives that make use of social workers in CJS. Programs like Prayas and Special Cell for Women and Children, which use police stations to hire social workers. Project Pahal by NGO Sathi and the Special Juvenile Police Units of the Delhi Police is another illustration. But unless the State alters its policy to include social workers in the CJS, civil society organisations will only be able to do so much.

Essential Readings

  1. Bakshi P. M. (2013). The Constitution of India (12th ed.), Universal Law Publishing Co. New Delhi 
  2. Government of India. (2015). Crime in India, 2015, National Crime Records Bureau, MHA
  3.  Government of India. (2015). Prison Statistics, 2015, National Crime Records Bureau, MHA 
  4.  Raghavan, V. (2013). Social work intervention in criminal justice: Field-theory linkage. In S. Singh (Ed.) Social work and social development: Perspectives from India and the United States. Chicago: Lyceum Publications. Inc. 
  5. Raghavan, V. and Mishra, S. (2017), The influence of social work within Indian Criminal Justice System: A Critical overview. In M. D. Chong and A. P. Francis (Ed.) Demystifying Criminal Justice Social Work in India. Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
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