Robert King Merton: The System Analysis

Introduction
Meaning and Goal of Sociology
Criteria of Social Structure
Traits of Social Structure
Senses of Social Structure
Types of Structural Changes
Mechanisms of Structure Building

Introduction

Durkeim's analysis is seen as the basis of functionalism in sociology, although functionalism goes back to the root of Darwin's idea of "organic analogy". Durkheim is essentially concerned with the question of how social order is possible and remains relatively stable? In response, he argued that society is more than the sum of its parts and that each part is functional to the stability of society as a whole. Thus, functionalists believe that the social structure or organization of society is more important than the individual. He sees society as a system: a collection of interconnected parts that together form the whole. According to this theory, the social system is maintained by social consensus where members of society agree and work together to achieve what is best for society as a whole. Thus, society is a self-regulating system of interconnected elements with structured social relations and observed rules. Comte saw society as a functionally organized system with its parts and components working in harmony, while Durkheim stressed the primacy of the system over the elements supported by social facts, the very subject of sociology. For him it is possible to explain the cause and consequences of functionalism on the basis of social facts. Similarly, Malinowski treated social and cultural systems as a collective response to individuals' basic biological needs, modified by cultural values. Radcliffe Brown, on the other hand, emphasized structured social relationships in which each element functions to maintain and develop the overall structure.

After the 1930s, however, functionalism as a theory was refined into structural functionalism which sees "the system within the system". Merton is considered the founder of this thesis of functionalism, which identified new aspects of social life that are sociologically significant. He coined the term "neologism" to refer to it. He identified and highlighted earlier concepts and terms in his works. His canons of contemporary sociology include manifest-latent function, dysfunctions, self-fulfilling prophecy, homophilia-heterophilia, status and role set, opportunity structures, anticipatory socialization, behavior of affinity group, sociological ambivalence, etc. Clear understanding of these concepts helps to better understand the social system as a whole

Meaning and Goal of Sociology

For Merton, sociology can be described as "the clear presentation of logically interrelated and empirically confirmed propositions about the structure of society and its changes, the behavior of man within the structure and the consequences of such behavior" (Merton, 1968) . , p.70). . After describing the calling of sociologists, his next effort was to focus on the goal of sociology as flux. For him in general: "Sociology is concerned with the investigation of how man's behavior and destiny are influenced, if not minutely determined, by his place within particular units and by the changing types of social structure and culture" (Merton, 1976, p. 184). . So from the above discussion, the main theme of sociology has the following aspects:

(i) Genetic: How it came to be?

(ii) Functional: How it affects behaviour?

(iii) Static: How it operates?

(iv) Dynamic: How it changes?

Therefore, for Merton, sociology is the study of social structure. Although Merton initiated the functional analytic approach, for him the central orientation of functionalism is "the practice of interpreting data by establishing their consequences for the larger structure in which they are involved" (Merton, 1968, pp. 100-1 ). However, he logically extended this functional analysis in 1975 in his writings on "structural analysis in sociology". In it, he explained that functional analysis specifies the consequences of a social phenomenon for its differentiated structural context and that structural analysis looks for the determinants of the phenomenon in its structural context.

Criteria of Social Structure

Mertonian analysis of functionalism based on structural context has the following four defining criterias:
(i) Organised set of social relationship: the focus is on relating and linking various components of society,
(ii) A pattern: a regular and repetitive character of social relation
(iii) The latent function: the idea of a deep, hidden and underlying level consequences (manifest vs. latent function)
(iv) Structural context and structural constraints: the idea of constraining or facilitating influences exerted by social structure on more concrete, more directly accessible social phenomena and events (behaviour, beliefs, attitudes and motivations, etc.)

For Merton, the fourth criterion is of great importance, he argues that 'human behavior derives not only from personal qualities, but also from those in interaction with the model situations in which the individual behaves. It is these social contexts that have a major influence on the extent to which individuals' capacities are actually realized' (Merton 1982a, p.174). He further argues that it should not be understood only in a negative sense, but that it positively influences, facilitates, encourages and stimulates certain choices of actors or agents (Merton 1968).

Mertonian structural analysis is best reflected in his work "Anomia", which speaks of the structural state of dissociation between the uniform cultural demands of success and the differentiated probabilities of success resulting in innovations, rituals, retreat, rebellion, etc. depending on the broader structural context in which it appears.

Traits of Social Structure

The Mertonian flavour of social structure analysis consists of the following two traits:

(a) Complex and multidimension: a plurality of components, elements such as statuses, roles, role-set, status-set, norms, values, institutions, collectivities, groups etc. shaped into various kinds of network and interlinkages,
(b) Emphasis on asymmetrical relationship: because of social statuses, stratas, organisations, communities there arises social conflicts leading to dysfunctions, strains and tensions. Hence Merton’s core idea is to consider human individuals and their actions as structurally located, anchored in the network of social relationship.There are two senses of structural changes that Merton emphasises upon.

Senses of Social Structure

Merton proposes the distinction between the social structure in the narrow sense and the cultural sense. For him, the salient environment of individuals can usefully be understood as encompassing cultural structure on the one hand and social structure on the other (Merton 1968). For him, the “cultural structure” is characterized exclusively in normative terms such as networks of norms, values, roles and institutions, etc. Influenced by Weber and Marxian ideas of "life chances and vested interests", Merton argued that "social structure" in the strict sense has the notion of "opportunity structure". It means hierarchically differentiated access to resources, facilities and values such as wealth, power and prestige.

Types of Structural Changes

For Merton, social structure generates changes within the structure as well as changes of structure through cumulatively formed behavioral choices and the amplification of dysfunctional consequences through tensions, conflicts and contradictions. Thus Merton incorporated the structurally produced changes in and of social structures through his theory. The following types of structural changes fall within the scope of Mertonian dynamics:

The reproductive changes: changes that involve regular functioning of everyday society consisting of the ongoing adaptive processes which in turn reproduce specified states of a social structure. As a result, those changes keep them within the limits by maintaining the structural identity concerned.
The transformation of structure: changes that disrupt the existing structure create a new one in its place.

From the above analysis, it is clear that Merton's social structure theory is essentially based on the assumption that structural conflicts lead to transformations in the social structure, to the point where a new structure emerges and the structural conflict is reproduced in a new form. He therefore speaks of amplification rather than compensation.

Mechanisms of Structure Building

The next question Merton encounters in the process of theory building is – what might be the general mechanism of structure formation? Therefore, it highlights the following general mechanisms of structure formation, such as:

Mechanism of accumulated dysfunctions: The accumulation of dysfunctions occurs when certain structural elements of a social system as a whole or certain of its central elements are dysfunctional. The greater the number of these dysfunctional elements and the more dysfunctional each one is, the more likely the system will collapse. Likewise, it has also happened that some elements of a social system are fundamentally functional, but some have additional dysfunctional side effects. But the question that comes to mind is the relative weight of accumulated dysfunctional side effects. Merton argues that a fundamental and empirically common case occurs when certain structures are functional for certain groups or strata of society and dysfunctional for others. by those social arrangements formed. When they have enough power, they make structural changes. The pressure for change depends on the complex set of historical circumstances that determine the relative functional significance of the dysfunctional subsystems. If subsystems strategically target the core of the subsystem, change is likely.
Mechanism of accumulated innovations: Merton focuses here on the 'incremental change of the normative structure' (Sztompka 1996: 14). He argues that although some standards are generally legitimate, some individuals find the standards too demanding for them and thus circumvent the standards. When evasive maneuvers are more widespread, performed by a variety of people and repeated on different occasions, public awareness is generated. But the belief that "everyone does it", combined with the tendency to imitate successful cheaters, leads to the mobilization of evasive maneuvers (Sztompka 1996: 14). It is now clear that the "institutionalized circumvention" takes on its full meaning by granting a certain legitimacy. This leads to the final stage of structure formation.

References

Merton, R.K. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press, 1949 (revised edition,1968)

On the Shoulders of Giants. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.1965.
Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays. New York: Free Press. 1976.

Sztompka, P. On Social Structure and Science (ed.). Chicago: CUP. 1996.