Indian ecosystem and species conservation
Contents
- Introduction
- Traditional conservation practices
- Sacred groves
- Decline of sacred groves
- Ecological importance of sacred groves
- Other sacred natural elements
- Threats to the sacred sites
- Sacred species
- Significance of species in conservation
- The Way ahead
Introduction
The management of natural resources by many traditional civilizations has been studied by ecologists, anthropologists, and social scientists. These systems are often strikingly similar to contemporary methods to ecosystem conservation. Such communities are still present in America, Europe, Australia, and Africa. They altered nature, yet they did not damage productivity or biodiversity. However, over time, these systems have seen significant losses as a result of the more exploitative view of nature, particularly in areas where landscapes have been colonised or occupied by the government and other people.
Traditional conservation practices
The identification and preservation of sacred natural sites has been one of the most prominent aspects of culture-based conservation. These frequently contain priceless biodiversity and safeguard important ecosystems. Long before the Yellowstone National Park model, which is the foundation for the majority of modern protected area legislation, policy, and practise globally, indigenous, local, and mainstream cultures, as well as spiritual traditions, developed and preserved regions with their distinct worldviews.
The oldest protected areas on the globe are, in fact, sacred natural locations. Unfortunately, many sanctuaries in the natural world are in jeopardy. All cultures practise planting and conserving sacred trees, have no-hunting laws for specific animal species, and recognise the cultural and religious significance of particular animal species.
What are Sacred Natural Sites?
Sacred Natural Sites are defined as “areas of land or water having special spiritual significance to peoples and communities”.
Sacred groves
Sacred natural locations include sacred groves. For most of the old world, they are at the centre of cultural and religious life. In many regions of the world where people's attitudes toward nature evolved, these groves have vanished. They continue to be widespread in various regions of the world, such as East Asia and Africa. The Mijikenda people of Kenya refer to their sacred forests as kaya (plural makaya). Many of the Kayas were at one time fortified settlements encircled by substantial bands of lowland tropical forest. The removal of trees for cropland, cattle grazing, and timber harvesting were all tightly prohibited. The kaya elders, who were also in charge of caring for the sacred items (fingo) that were buried in the kaya and were viewed as being crucial to the community's wellbeing, enforced these laws.
The kaya woodlands served as locations for devotion as well. The Mijikenda maintained respect for the sacredness of these sites as they moved away from the original kaya settlements and established new villages beginning in the middle of the 19th century. As a result, the kaya forests survived as islands of native vegetation along the coastal strip while forests were cleared elsewhere. About 2000 hectares of kaya and sacred trees were thought to still exist in 2 Districts of Kenya in 1993. Additionally, Japan, China, Thailand, and some of Australia have preserved groves.
India's sacred groves have a long history that is well known. German silviculturist D. Brandis described the sacred forests he had observed from north-east India to Rajasthan and south India in a piece he published in 1897. The south-west corner of the gardens of "all respectable Malayali Hindus," according to William Logan (1920), is set aside for the spontaneous growth of a wild forest devoted to snakes (sapakavu), where "every tree and bush, every branch, and every twig is sacrosanct." Travancore, in southern Kerala, alone has 12,000 kavus, or groves, according to the 1921 Census Report. Kerala's Western Ghats contain areas of dense forest called ayyappan kavus. These groves are mentioned in Keralan folklore and customs.
Even now, sacred groves can be found in great numbers all over India's west coast and the Western Ghats. In regional languages, they go by a number of different names. They are referred to as Devrai or Devrahati in Marathi, which literally translates as "the forest of god." Different-sized sections of forest have been set aside for the deity. It was long held that anyone who cut down the tree or collected wood here would be cursed by the deity.
The sacred groves known as Devarkadus can be seen in Karnataka's Kodagu district. Local names for sacred groves in Chhattisgarh include Matagudi, Devgudi, and Gaondevi. In the Devgudis, each tribe has their own Mata or Gaondevi deity. Most sacred groves known as sarana or jahera are located in the Bihar region of Chhotanagpur. The majority of the groves are run by the neighbourhood and are owned by a clan or a collection of households. The blooming of the flowers on the trees in the groves and other agricultural activities frequently coincide with community ceremonies. These rituals show how closely nature and traditional cultures are woven together.
Decline of sacred groves
Studies conducted in the Western Ghats and elsewhere indicate that societies actively engaged in landscape management practised protecting sacred woods. The British colonial administration was unable to comprehend and value the practitioners' ethical standards for resource utilisation. Except in a few isolated regions, shifting farming was outlawed and all forests were declared state property. Commercial forestry was carried out, and even local communities were not allowed to enter state forests. The groves and the civilizations who nurtured them suffered as a result of all this. Sacred groves frequently integrated with the natural woodlands or the regrowing fallow fields. As a result of state forestry programmes, many sacred groves were subject to commercial logging. Even after independence, the procedures persisted. The taboos and regulations pertaining to sacred groves, as well as the communal institutions that upheld them, eroded as a result of shifting cultural norms. When resources in the area were depleted as a result of bad management, many were cut down or overexploited.
In North-East India, sacred forests that are still managed by local communities are better conserved. In the Meghalayan town of Mawphlang, there is a sacred grove called Lait-tyrkhang. The community uses it as a setting for rituals to speak with the divine to ask for protection for themselves, their area, and against outside aggression and deadly diseases. This place is still well-preserved and is thought to be sacred. Today, after paying a nominal fee to the council, the community permits tourists to explore specific portions of the grove. The sanctity is rigorously upheld.
The "sanskritization" of religion poses another danger to the sacred grove way of life. Numerous non-Brahminical gods and goddesses were worshipped in sacred groves. Local tradition claims that in some circumstances, the deities will become enraged if they are protected by a roof. They must remain exposed to the weather. This guaranteed the protection of the nearby woodland, which served as the deity's abode. But in many sacred woods nowadays, the original deity is changed or moved into a corner, and once the trees in the sacred grove are cut down, famous Hindu gods or goddesses like Durga, Hanuman, Shiva, and others are installed and a sizable temple is constructed.
Ecological importance of sacred groves
The groves are still present in the majority of the country today as a byproduct of a custom. Nevertheless, they keep endangered unique plants and environments safe. For instance, the dhup tree, Canarium strictum, is very uncommon in dry woodlands. However, a sacred grove in Maharashtra known as "dhup rahat" contains some trees, although the nearby woodlands are devoid of any. In several sacred groves in Karnataka, myristica swamps, a rare and endangered ecosystem in the Western Ghats, are still present together with a distinctive plant variety. It is commonly known that Kan (holy grove) forests have the capacity to store water and release it gradually as perennial waterflows. The ecosystem function of recharging water sources in the neighbouring villages is provided by many sacred groves, which is crucial for the local inhabitants. Even though they are small, the groves are home to a wide variety of flora, birds, mammals, and several other smaller species.
Other sacred natural elements
There are other different sacred natural ecosystems and geographical features in addition to forest areas. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition, which predominates in the west Sikkim Himalayas, is one such cultural/sacred environment that is perpetuated by institutional organisation. The Buddhist principles of nonviolence and kindness to all living things serve as its foundation. The region includes the snow-capped Mount Khanchendzonga, subtropical rainforests in West Sikkim known as "Demojong," alpine meadows and rhododendron scrub jungle, conifer and mixed evergreen temperate forests, and subtropical rainforest systems. It is the centre of Sikkim, a sacred region in the Central Himalayas. Buddhists in Sikkimese regard Padmasambhava as the supreme being who bestowed blessings on their country when he arrived to enlighten the locals (Ramakrishnan, 1996). Institutional rules concerning what is and is not permitted in the landscape are quite well defined.
For a variety of reasons, many rivers, both big and tiny, hills, and water features are revered. The Ganges River is among the most illustrative instances. In the Himalayan region at Gangotri, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Rishikesh, and Haridwar; and in the Indo-Gangetic plain at Varanasi and Allahabad, holy cities with ancient temples, the river is revered as a hallowed body of water. These collectively reflect a collection of interrelated eco-systems that form a mega-watershed and are connected by the sacred river itself. As the residences of water deities or of fish that are revered as holy, certain sections of rivers, hill streams, and ponds are accorded special protection in other parts of India. These community-maintained fish sanctuaries are currently among the very few locations where we can still witness native fish and unspoiled river sections (Gupta et al. 2016). Numerous of these are temple sanctuaries that have been looked after by riparian temples and followers for many years. Such thriving traditional sanctuaries are still common in Uttarakhand, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
In his pamphlet, "Development and Management of Freshwater Fish Sanctuaries in India," retired joint director of fisheries for the state of Karnataka Dr.Shyama Bhat Kolari lists 35 such fish sanctuaries. In isolated locations like Seethanadi, new community-conserved sanctuaries are being established by motivated local people. On the banks of the River Tunga, Adi Sankara founded Shringeri Math, which is home to a fish sanctuary teeming with endangered Tor khudree (the scientific name for Sahyadri Mahseer fish) (Gupta et al. 2016).
The Chippalgudde Fish Sanctuary in Teerthahalli is tucked away in a maze of Western Ghat forests on the banks of the Tunga river. The Bhats, who oversee the trust for the stunning Siddemodhivinayak Ganapati Temple in Chippalgudde, also oversee the fish sanctuary next to it on a 4-kilometer protected section of the river. Small platforms for feeding fish are located on the river bank by Siddhi Vinayaka Seva Samithi. It is a plain infrastructure that has no impact on the morphology of the river. On both banks, there is dense riparian flora, and the local mythology is rife with macabre tales about the terrible consequences that await those who murder Mahseer in the Tunga waters.
Threats to the sacred sites
Large sacred sites are frequently in danger as a result of shifting civilizations and land use. The cultural meanings can change as a result of an influx of non-locals, as is the case with urbanisation or tourism. Although most tourists acknowledge that the Ganges is sacred, this does not stop them from polluting the waters. Rivers continue to be polluted by nearby or along the riverside industries. The ecological qualities of sacred sites and biodiversity may be negatively impacted by dams and other significant changes. Only a myth around certain sites' holiness can endure while the cultural ethos is lost.
Sacred species
Sacred species are distinct from other customs. There might or might not be limitations on their wild collecting. These precious species might still be found outside of the cultural environment or they might be a part of it. There might be taboos surrounding particular species that prevent their cutting, death, or use. The species may be avoided because to their morphological features and behavioural tendencies, or because people think they are toxic. They could be used as religious symbols or show up in creation tales. For instance, several species are revered as sacred by Hindus because they are connected to many gods and goddesses in Hinduism.
Due to understanding of its practical value as a versatile therapeutic herb, the sacred basil, known as Tulsi in Hindi and many other Indian languages, became sacred. A fig species, on the other hand, is revered in many religious belief systems, including those of animists in Africa, Hindus and Buddhists in South and Southeast Asia, Muslims in Central Asia, and others, for a variety of reasons, including its intangible significance in supporting animal biodiversity (Berkes, 2012). In fact, many of these culturally significant species contribute to the ecosystem's stability, making them ecologically vital keystone values.
Even if the justifications for taboos surrounding a particular species may evolve throughout time, they still have the same goal of protecting that species on a larger scale. The majority of people defend the peacock, India's national bird. There are some communities that consume peacock meat, although they are scarce, especially in the modern world. Most people consider birds to be symbols of beauty and wisdom. It should never be killed or eaten since it is the vahana (vehicle) of Lord Karthikeya or the Goddess of Learning, Saraswati.
In western India, some people believed that feeding peacocks was good, and it is usual to observe peacocks wandering through urban parks and stopping by terraces in cities like Ahmedabad and Delhi. It is thought that peacock worship has a long history. The peacock was revered by Dravidians as Mother Earth, and later, Muruga or Subramania was considered as a deified peacock. Numerous animal species, including tigers, leopards, tortoises, blackbucks, monkeys, and snakes, are revered to some extent as symbols or close friends of the gods. These ideas, however, are culturally distinctive and change through time and geography.
Significance of species in conservation
Species taboos may or may not lead to their conservation. A relationship requires several variables. Sacred species are still venerated and preserved in their communities. This could guide conservation efforts. Conservationists working with sea turtles and crocodiles have used religious beliefs to safeguard them. Rajasthan has a unique tradition of conservation. The Bishnois follow Guru Jambheshwar of Bikaner, who revealed 29 tenets (bish means twenty, noi means nine). He prophesied that damaging the environment would harm oneself. Eight of his 29 tenets promote bio-diversity and animal husbandry. These include banning animal killing, tree cutting, and protecting all life. The community must utilise insect-free firewood. Blue shirts are banned since they're dyed with bushes. Bishnoi tell Amrita Devi's story. Maharajah Abhay Singh of Jodhpur required wood to build his palace 200 years ago. In 1731, a minister instructed his soldiers to remove Khajari (Prosopis cineraria) trees in a nearby settlement. Amrita Devi and the people protested the proposal when they learned about it. The Khejari tree supplies food and fodder in dry areas. Amrita Devi said she would consider it an affront to her faith and would rather die to safeguard the trees. 363 Bishnois were killed while hugging trees on the minister's orders. The king was ashamed and ordered his warriors to cease the massacre. Soon after, the Maharajah preserved Bishnoi's trees and animals. Every September, Bishnois gather there to honour their people's extraordinary sacrifice to preserve their faith and religion. The region bans cutting down forests and harming animals. Bishnoi community members sued Salman Khan and other Bollywood actors in 1998 for hunting Chinkaras near their village. Bishnoi revere Chinkara. It's the state animal of Rajasthan and protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. After 18 years, the actor was acquitted, much to the environmental lobby's dismay.
The Way ahead
Traditional conservation methods have a lot of issues, as the one indicated above. Matching national and international conservation efforts with respect for regional belief systems is crucial. An essential first step is acknowledging the beliefs and customs of indigenous populations. Guidelines for finding strategies for the long-term conservation of the sacred natural locations protected by indigenous tribes were laid out by the IUCN Task Force on the Cultural and Spiritual Values of Protected Areas. The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 and the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 both offer tools for the communities to recognise sacred locations. But even as cultures alter in an increasingly globalised world, these practises must be supported by society as a whole and must be seen with respect.
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