State and other Institutions Part - 2
In State and other Institutions Part - 1 we discussed about The state, state and government, state and society and state and association. In this post we will discuss about
- State and the Nation
- Institutions Under the Political System
- The Individual and the State
- Democracy and Individual
- Summary
Democracy and Individual
The state and the country are distinct. From the Latin word nation, which means "born," comes the English word nation. In other words, a nation is a group of people descended from a common stock. In most nation definitions, the ethnic component of a nation is mentioned. A population belonging to an ethnic unity and residing on land belonging to another ethnicity is what is meant by the term "nation.". A population with a shared custom and shared morality refers to ethnic unity. Actually, psychological and spiritual ties, rather than ones based in race, language, or religion, are what hold a nation together. A nation is the collective consciousness of its people. Ethnic differences become less significant once this awareness is attained. One good example is Switzerland. Three ethnic groups call it home.
Now we can look at the difference between a state and a country. After World War I, the idea of one nation, one state—or the formation of states based on self-determination—became a reality in politics. As a result of the emergence of new nation-states, the terms nation and state started to be used interchangeably. Even today, we read and hear about countries being referred to as "nations" when "states" would have been a better term. The United Nations Organization (UNO) is a confederation of independent states rather than a collection of countries. The state differs from the country in the following ways.
- i) The state is a people organised for law within a definite territory, whereas a nation is a people psychologically bound together..
- ii) Statehood is objective, nationhood is subjective.
- iii) Statehood is an obligation enforceable by law, whereas nationhood is a condition of the mind, a spiritual possession.
- iv) A state may consist of one nation (Rumania, Albania, France) or different nations, (India, Canada). For the same reason, a nation may be split into two or more states (North and South Korea, People’s Republic of China and Republic of China)
Two additional terms, nationality and nationalism, are connected to the word nation. People who share affinities like common origin, race, language, tradition or history and shared political aspirations can identify spiritually or psychologically as belonging to a particular nation. It is a way of being, thinking, and coexisting. Nationalism is the development of an identity for a group of people based on shared characteristics that define a nation and a nationality. By instilling in them a sense of identity (nationality), nationalism unites people into a nation. In conclusion, we can say that states will be more viable if they are formed on the basis of single nations, but many of the pluri-national states have also shown that they are viable, showing that nationalism is only one aspect of a state's strength.
Institutions Under the Political System
Governmental Organisation
Rule by one or rule by many people can be used to describe the distribution of authority. Both a monarchy and a dictatorship are possible in the first. Different forms of rule by many are possible. Power held by a small number of people is referred to as oligarchy; power held by many people is referred to as democracy. These descriptions are only approximations and are not exact. Parliamentary and presidential democracies are two of the many possible variations on the concept. The former designates the Parliament as the highest authority in the state. Parliamentary democracies are exemplified by the United Kingdom and India. In actuality, India took its democratic system directly from the United Kingdom. A presidential democracy is one in which the President has absolute authority and is not subject to legislative oversight. America serves as the best illustration of presidential democracy. India's Union Cabinet is presided over by the Prime Minister, who is subject to removal by a vote of Parliament. The only way to remove the President in the United States is through impeachment by the Congress, which is the American version of Parliament. Which type of government is used—federal or unitary—is yet another way to differentiate between them. The unitary type exists where there is local autonomy and centralized government (e. g. Sri Lanka. In a federal system, local governments have autonomy over a small range of authority (e. g. U. S. A. , India).
The Legislature
Of the three branches of government, the legislature is one. It is the state's legislative body. In parliamentary democracies, the legislature has unrestricted authority to enact or repeal any law; however, in states with a predominant presidential form of government, as well as in oligarchies or dictatorships, the legislature has only a limited amount of authority to do so. Even in democracies where the Constitution protects the legislature's supremacy in enacting laws, the ruling elite has a number of ways to undermine this and impose its laws backdoor.
In this way, the type and makeup of legislatures vary. There are two main types: unicameral and bi-cameral. In a unicameral state (e.g. g. Norway, Israel), the latter of which has a two-house legislature made up of the Assembly (lower house) and the Council (upper house), respectively. India is one of the nearly all states in the world that uses the bi-cameral system. In India, the upper house is referred to as Rajya Sabha, and the lower house is known as Lok Sabha. The House of Commons and the House of Lords are their respective names in England. The two houses together are known as the Parliament in U. in both India and England. S. A. with the Senate serving as the upper house and the House of Representatives serving as the lower house. They are known as the Congress collectively. The bi-cameral system is used in many Indian States (e.g. g. Bihar), but also many other states (e. g. Kerala and Andhra Pradesh) have homes.
Between states, there are variations in the makeup of the legislature. All of the legislators, or at least the majority of them, will be the ruler's nominees in some states with dictatorial governments. Members of the upper house are occasionally chosen by popular vote. In India, the members of the Lok Sabha are chosen by the general public, whereas the members of the Rajya Sabha are chosen by the electors of the State Legislative Assemblies. Except for church officials, hereditary nobility makes up the House of Lords (Upper House) in the United Kingdom. In U. S. A. Congressmen who serve in both houses are chosen by direct popular vote.
The upper house will have less power than the lower house when there are two houses for making laws, with the exception of the U.S. S. A. ). The upper house has few powers in both India and the UK. Although the primary function of legislatures is to enact laws, they also serve as the judicial and financial branches of government in almost every state in the world. Everyone is aware that it is required to approve the government's yearly budget. The legislature spends a significant portion of its time debating or discussing the actions of the government.
The Executive
This is the government's second branch. All government employees whose sole responsibility is to enforce the law are referred to by this term. The executive is also responsible for developing policy and putting it into practice through programs. Due to the enormous power that the executive has over these activities, many legislators will look to the executive for favors.
The executive can consist of a single person, such as a tyrant or king, or a group of people, such as a council or cabinet. Even when the latter form is in place, the executive is still referred to by the title of its chief, such as King, President, Prime Minister, Chairman, etc.
The Judiciary
The judiciary is the body that decides whether the laws passed by the legislature are valid. An ordered system of courts makes up the judiciary. The criminal court system and the civil court system typically operate in parallel at the lower levels of court. Typically, the Supreme Court is referred to as the highest court. It is known as the Privy Council in England. The High Court is the name of the state's top court in India. Lower levels have district (Zilla) and Munsiff or Magistrates Courts. Original jurisdiction is reserved for lower-level courts, and appellate jurisdiction is reserved for higher-level courts (which hear appeals from lower-level court judgments). Original and appellate petitions are accepted by the High Courts and the Supreme Court of India. They have the authority to handle constitutional matters as well. In democracies, the government's other branches are prohibited from interfering with the judiciary. Judges cannot be removed after being appointed in order to protect their freedom, unless they commit extremely serious offenses. In totalitarian states, the legislature and judiciary are both extensions of the executive branch and are subject to the dictator's orders.
The Bureaucracy
An executive branch does this. The state's powers have multiplied exponentially in modern times, and many of these powers (e. g. The processes of planning and programming have become very technical. The executive won't be able to fulfill their role effectively in this situation because they won't have the time or the necessary skills. In order to fill the void, the civil service has intervened. In the contemporary state, the Civil Service is recruited along contemporary lines. Officials are chosen for positions through competitive examinations, which are typically administered by an impartial organization like the Public Service Commission. This process enables the appointment of the applicant who is best suited for the position. The officials are given detailed rules to follow as they perform their duties. The system as a whole has undergone extensive professionalization. This system of bureaucratic rule is referred to as bureaucracy. The executive's servants in the bureaucracy are more than that. They frequently carry out the duties of the executive in their specific area. The average person typically perceives a bureaucrat as someone with great power. In some countries, like France, most people who are hired for executive positions come from the highest levels of the bureaucracy, blurring the line between the two. The bureaucracy's distinct role in formulating policies and carrying out programs, second only to the executive in importance only, has allowed it to be seen as an essential component of the political system.
The Non-Government Agencies
Political parties, interest groups, and the press have all been listed as key players in this sub-system. Let's talk about these three crucial points. This will make it clear how they work.
- Political Parties
These are organized groups of citizens who share similar opinions on important issues and, acting as political parties, work to take over the government in order to advance the programs and policies they adamantly support. A political party has been described as an organization formed to support a particular idea or position that it seeks to establish as the governing principle through constitutional means. A democratic government cannot function without political parties. They serve as the ties that bind the populace to the state. They serve as the means by which both individuals and organizations seek out and use political power. They help people become aware of their political responsibilities as citizens. They are the organizations that uphold an ongoing connection between the populace and those who speak for them in either the government or the opposition.
Political parties may hold different ideologies, which may affect their objectives and strategies. Today's vogue is to broadly categorize them into the right and left. While the leftist parties are revolutionary and change-oriented, the rightist parties are conservative and focused on maintaining the status quo. There are centrist parties that do not fall into either the right or the left in many European nations. Recently, religious fundamentalism has also entered the world of political parties. Today, religious fundamentalism rules over a number of states around the world (e. g. Iran). All three major communities in India—Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs—are becoming more and more religiously fundamentalist on a daily basis. The number of political parties that are active in a state is another crucial component of its political system. In some states (such as, say, Alaska), there is only one political party. China). There are also states with multiple parties. Only two parties exist in a few states (e. g. U. K. and U. S. A. ).
Despite the fact that a two-party system may be better for a democracy, the number of parties has no real impact on how politics are conducted. Political coalitions have developed in states with multiple parties. In order to accomplish their shared goals, parties with similar ideologies may decide to form a common front. Political instability can occur in a multiparty system where the coalition government is made up of a number of small parties since some parties may be tempted to defect from the ruling coalition and join the opposition on flimsy justifications. When ideological differences between parties are less pronounced and party loyalty is based on personal considerations and loyalties, the likelihood of such a change in allegiance increases. France prior to Charles de Gulle's arrival is a good example. Until that time, France's ministries would come and go every few months. Italy at the moment serves as an illustration. Our multiparty system exists in India. There are coalition cabinets in some states. Currently in September, in the Center. 2004. Congress and the group's allies i. e. There is a UPA at the Center. However, in some of the states, including Uttar Pradesh, an alliance between the BJP and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), led by BSP member and chief minister Mayawati, had existed. Each faction had a different leader. The instability of cabinets has been caused by the frequent switching of allegiances among legislators in these states. - Interest Groups
These are associations or groups that pursue goals other than those of political parties. Sometimes members of these groups will join political parties, but this is more often done to advance their own unique interests than because they are ardent supporters of the party's philosophy or agenda. Interest groups might be based on regional, linguistic, religious, economic, racial, or other factors. In order to put pressure on the government to give in to their demands, they occasionally became political parties or won over some members of the ruling party. The group in question might be regarded as a pressure group in this situation. Their friends and fellow travelers may organize informal (or even formal) groups within the legislature and lobby for their cause. Pressure lobbies are what these organizations are known as. Examples of interest groups include the All India Chamber of Commerce and Industry (AIMA) and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI). Sometimes, when the government introduces a bill or the budget proposal in Parliament, interest groups will use their clout to lobby the lawmakers to put pressure on the government to withdraw the proposal or amend it in a way that suits their preferences. Interest and pressure groups employ a variety of tactics to sway policymakers and advance their demands. These tactics include boycott threats, the threat to withhold essential services, the threat to shut down businesses in protest, and agitations like strikes and street protests. The likelihood of success, however, determines the strategy. Government decisions are heavily influenced by interest groups. - The Press
In our discussion, we have only used the press as opposed to other mass communication mediums like radio and television because these are almost universally governed by the state. The press is sometimes censored in totalitarian states. Generally speaking, all political parties now consider the press to be an integral component. The best defense for democracy is a free press. In actuality, true democracy and a free press are now mutually exclusive. The press gives the populace a window into what is really going on in the nation, particularly what the government is doing or not doing to help them. By doing this, they could influence how the populace felt and behaved toward the ruling party and government, and how they would vote in the upcoming election. The media is a surefire tool for a political party to spread its messages. Each newspaper may become partisan because the press itself may have political leanings, but since all parties are free to have their own media outlets, the drawbacks of this will be. significantly neutralized. The press and other forms of mass media, such as radio and television, would in any case provide the citizen with the most up-to-date information regarding political developments and state-level political processes. V. , the Internet, etc.
The Individual and the State
Some political writers held the belief that people only exist for the benefit of the state. Nazism and Fascism both supported this point of view. This viewpoint was supported by both Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany. But the opposing viewpoint was also expressed from the beginning. This point of view holds that the state was created to fulfill human needs and that it will always exist to guarantee a good life. This viewpoint is acknowledged by contemporary welfare theories. The welfare of its citizens is the stated aim of all governments. While it is the duty of the state to provide for the needs of the individual, it is also the duty of the individual to carry out his or her obligations to the state in order to help the state carry out its mission. Relationship is mutually beneficial. Individuals have the following rights under the modern democratic state: the right to life, liberty, and (limited) property; the right to equality; the freedom of speech and religion; the right to education; and the right to public office. Sometimes referred to as "Fundamental Rights," the Constitution upholds these rights to education and public office.
The Indian Constitution contains a chapter on fundamental rights. In return for these rights, the individual has the following duties to the state:
- (i) duty to obey the law,
- (ii) duty to pay taxes and, above all,
- (iii) duty to by loyal to the state.
Democracy and Individual
Given that we reside in a democratic nation, it is important to understand the benefits that democracy offers. Many of us have a propensity to take democracy for granted, and very few of us are aware that democracy is a form of government whose continuation can only be ensured by a watchful populace. Mobocracy (rule by the mob) and dictatorship (rule by one person) are the two evils that democracy is most susceptible to. The decision-making process will either be replaced by a majority (democracy) or a single person (dictatorship). The two extremes of democracy must be avoided at all costs. Only if the populace is educated can this be best ensured. There are several characteristics of enlightenment. Participation in politics, particularly exercising one's right to vote, tolerance of, if not respect for, those with differing opinions, knowledge of one's rights and obligations, upholding those obligations honestly, and refraining from using illegal or extralegal means to further one's objectives are some examples. The term "civic responsibilities" could be used to describe all of these. A government of, by, and for the people is the ideal form of democracy. In order to achieve the goal and maintain the game, all participants in a democracy must recognize that the rules of the game must be faithfully followed.
Summary
One distinctive social structure is the state. A group of people has been designated as the state. occupying a specific area of a territory permanently and being more or less numerous. It has an established government to which most people remain subservient and is free from outside interference. However, political scientists acknowledge the following fundamental characteristics of the state: a populace, a region, a power structure, and sovereignty. In fact, sovereignty gives the state the most power.
The development of a sense of unity among individuals based on shared characteristics that define a nation is known as nationalism. The idea of a single people as a nation.
A state cannot function without its government because it performs all of the day-to-day tasks required to run the country. Though the terms government and the state are used interchangeably, to speak of differences:
- (i) the government is concrete while the state is an abstraction:
- (ii) the state is supreme while the Government is an element,
- (iii) the state is permanent, but government is not,
- (iv) the authority of the state is unlimited, but for the government it is limited
- (v) the states have common attributes, while types of government vary. The state performs the political functions as the political sub-system of the society. There are some other organisations in the society looking after the welfare and other activities. Though the political pluralists claim the state to be one of the associations of the many associations of the Society, but the State stands to be a distinctive organisation because of its sovereign power.
The executive, legislative, judicial, and bureaucratic branches of a state, however, as well as political parties, interest groups, the press, and other mass media, are examples of non-governmental organizations. These organisation, indeed, perform distinctive functions in their respective fields of specialisation. The relationship between the individual and the state is not uniform all over the world as there are different forms of governments. The right to life, property, liberty, expression, equality, and education are among the fundamental rights granted to citizens of a contemporary democratic state. In return citizens are also expected to perform certain duties of the state viz, obey law, pay taxes, to be loyal to the state, exercise voting rights, avoidance of unconstitutional means to achieve one’s goal. It also expects citizens to be knowledgeable about their rights and duties.
Further Readings
- Kornblum, William, 1988. Sociology in a Changing World. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. New York: (Ch. 16 pp. 450-456).
- Smith, R.W. and Preston, F.W. 1977. Sociology An Introduction. Martin’s Press: New York (Part 3 Chapter II pp. 216-279)
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